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119-463: The second use of Watergate Seven refers to seven advisors and aides of United States President Richard M. Nixon who were indicted by a grand jury on March 1, 1974, for their roles in the Watergate scandal. The grand jury also named Nixon as an unindicted co-conspirator . The indictments marked the first time in U.S. history that a president was so named. The period leading up to the trial of

238-442: A majority vote under fast track rules to make any deadlines the bill had. All US states also have a provision by which the governor can veto bills passed by the legislature. In addition to the ability to veto an entire bill as a "package", many states give the governor additional power to strike or revise parts of a bill without striking the whole bill. All governors of the five permanently inhabited US territories ( Guam ,

357-729: A perpetual union between the states in November 1777 and sent it to the states for ratification . Under the Articles, which took effect on March 1, 1781, the Congress of the Confederation was a central political authority without any legislative power. It could make its own resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws, and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial regulations upon its citizens. This institutional design reflected how Americans believed

476-1096: A president of the United States in Congress Assembled to preside over its deliberation as a neutral discussion moderator . Unrelated to and quite dissimilar from the later office of president of the United States, it was a largely ceremonial position without much influence. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. By 1786, Americans found their continental borders besieged and weak and their respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports, their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North African pirates , and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War debts unpaid and accruing interest. Civil and political unrest loomed. Events such as

595-511: A "disruptive" erosion of his ability to govern. Ford failed to win election to a full term and his successor, Jimmy Carter , failed to win re-election. Ronald Reagan , who had been an actor before beginning his political career, used his talent as a communicator to help reshape the American agenda away from New Deal policies toward more conservative ideology. With the Cold War ending and

714-484: A "revisionary power". The veto was constructed not as an absolute veto, but rather with limits, such as that Congress can override a veto, and that the president's objections must be stated in writing. Further, as Elbridge Gerry explained in the final days of the convention: "The primary object of the revisionary check of the President is not to protect the general interest, but to defend his own department." During

833-781: A compromise on a law that allowed gaming on Navajo Nation land, after the council failed to override the veto. In addition, some tribal constitutions adopted under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 give the Secretary of the Interior a veto power over tribal legislation. The Nisqually Indian Tribe of the Nisqually Reservation constitution grants a secretarial veto over all ordinances issued under its police power . This has sometimes caused difficulties for tribal governments. From 1975 to 2021,

952-573: A delegate for Virginia. When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787, the 12 state delegations in attendance ( Rhode Island did not send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between legislative and executive branches from within their respective state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by

1071-463: A dominant figure in American politics. Historians believe Roosevelt permanently changed the political system by strengthening the presidency, with some key accomplishments including breaking up trusts, conservationism, labor reforms, making personal character as important as the issues, and hand-picking his successor, William Howard Taft . The following decade, Woodrow Wilson led the nation to victory during World War I , although Wilson's proposal for

1190-545: A good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid, interference or consent from Congress". Bill Wilson , board member of Americans for Limited Government , opined that the expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to individual freedom and democratic rule". Article I, Section   1 of the Constitution vests all lawmaking power in Congress's hands, and Article 1, Section 6, Clause   2 prevents

1309-466: A month after taking office. Presidents often grant pardons shortly before leaving office, like when Bill Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office; this is often controversial . Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed that enable the president to exercise executive power with a degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege , which allows the president to withhold from disclosure any communications made directly to

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1428-682: A presidential veto on March 3, 1845, during the presidency of John Tyler . In 1983, the Supreme Court struck down the one-house legislative veto , on separation of powers grounds and on grounds that the action by one house of Congress violated the Constitutional requirement of bicameralism. The case was INS v. Chadha , concerning a foreign exchange student in Ohio who had been born in Kenya but whose parents were from India. Because he

1547-431: A presidential veto, it requires a two-thirds vote of both houses, which is usually very difficult to achieve except for widely supported bipartisan legislation. The framers of the Constitution feared that Congress would seek to increase its power and enable a "tyranny of the majority", so giving the indirectly elected president a veto was viewed as an important check on the legislative power. While George Washington believed

1666-438: A sexual harassment suit could proceed without delay, even against a sitting president. The 2019 Mueller report on Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election detailed evidence of possible obstruction of justice , but investigators declined to refer Donald Trump for prosecution based on a United States Department of Justice policy against indicting an incumbent president. The report noted that impeachment by Congress

1785-510: A sign on the door of his United States Congress office saying, "These premises were surveilled by the Watergate Seven. Watch yourself". The original Watergate Seven and their legal dispositions were: The seven advisors and aides later indicted in 1974 were: President of the United States [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The president of the United States ( POTUS ) is the head of state and head of government of

1904-612: A sitting American president led troops in the field", though James Madison briefly took control of artillery units in defense of Washington, D.C. , during the War of 1812 . Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil War , 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant . The present-day operational command of

2023-550: A state visit by a foreign head of state, the president typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South Lawn , a custom begun by John F. Kennedy in 1961. This is followed by a state dinner given by the president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the evening. As a national leader, the president also fulfills many less formal ceremonial duties. For example, William Howard Taft started

2142-424: A third. In addition, nine vice presidents have become president by virtue of a president's intra-term death or resignation . In all, 45 individuals have served 46 presidencies spanning 58 four-year terms. Joe Biden is the 46th and current president, having assumed office on January 20, 2021. President-elect Donald Trump is scheduled to be inaugurated as the 47th president on January 20, 2025. During

2261-547: A veto is most commonly 2/3 as in the federal system, although in San Diego a 5/8 vote is required. Nationwide, less than a third of US mayors have a veto power. In particular, veto powers are less common in council-manager governments . However, the mayor of Charlotte , who otherwise serves chiefly as a ceremonial head of government and tiebreaker on council votes, has a veto power over most city legislation. Legislation requires six votes to pass, and seven votes to override

2380-512: A veto power, including over budgetary matters. Some constitutions give the executive the power to refer a law to a referendum rather than to veto it directly. In the Navajo Nation government, the president has a package veto power as well as a line-item veto for budgetary matters. The line-item veto cannot be overridden, under the terms of a 2009 referendum. The package veto was notably used by President Kelsey Begaye in 2001 to force

2499-518: A veto, but only the consolidated city-county of San Francisco has an elected executive. And in some states, such as Iowa since 1981, counties can adopt an elected-executive system with a veto power, but none have done so. The constitutions of many Native American tribes contain an executive veto power over bills passed by the tribal council . For example, the chairperson of the Little Traverse Bay Bands of Odawa Indians has

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2618-433: A veto. For example, in 2008 the council overrode the mayor's veto of a development project. In the early United States, mayoral veto powers were rare, although they were granted for example to the mayor of Baltimore under the charter of 1796 and the mayor of Washington under the charter of 1802. Mayors in the early 19th century were often appointed rather than elected, and typically served one-year terms. As cities grew,

2737-413: Is head of the executive branch of the federal government and is constitutionally obligated to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed". The executive branch has over four million employees, including the military. Presidents make political appointments . An incoming president may make up to 4,000 upon taking office, 1200 of which must be confirmed by the U.S. Senate . Ambassadors , members of

2856-571: Is to be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States.   ... It would amount to nothing more than the supreme command and direction of the military and naval forces   ... while that [the power] of the British king extends to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which   ... would appertain to the legislature. [Emphasis in

2975-852: The American Revolutionary War , the Thirteen Colonies , represented by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia , declared themselves to be independent sovereign states and no longer under British rule. The affirmation was made in the Declaration of Independence , which was written predominantly by Thomas Jefferson and adopted unanimously on July 4, 1776, by the Second Continental Congress. Recognizing

3094-598: The Boy Scouts of America . Veto power in the United States In the United States , the president can use the veto power to prevent a bill passed by the Congress from becoming law. Congress can override the veto by a two-thirds vote of both chambers. All state and territorial governors have a similar veto power, as do some mayors and county executives. In many states and territories

3213-535: The Cabinet , and various officers , are among the positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation. The power of a president to fire executive officials has long been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may remove executive officials at will. However, Congress can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain inferior executive officers by statute . To manage

3332-975: The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Puerto Rico , American Samoa , and the United States Virgin Islands (USVI)) have at least a package veto and a line-item veto. The first territorial governor to be granted line-item veto power was the governor of the Territory of Hawaii in 1902. In addition to these gubernatorial veto powers, Congress has expressly reserved the plenary power to nullify territorial legislation in some territories, including Guam, although not in Puerto Rico. Some territories' organic laws formerly provided for an absolute presidential veto over territorial legislation as well, as

3451-763: The League of Nations was rejected by the Senate. Warren Harding , while popular in office, would see his legacy tarnished by scandals, especially Teapot Dome , and Herbert Hoover quickly became very unpopular after failing to alleviate the Great Depression . The ascendancy of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 led further toward what historians now describe as the Imperial presidency . Backed by enormous Democratic majorities in Congress and public support for major change, Roosevelt's New Deal dramatically increased

3570-603: The Line Item Veto Act of 1996 . This act allowed the president to veto individual items of budgeted expenditures from appropriations bills instead of vetoing the entire bill and sending it back to Congress. However, this line-item veto was immediately challenged by members of Congress who disagreed with it. In 1998, the Supreme Court ruled 6–3 to declare the line-item veto unconstitutional. In Clinton v. City of New York ( 524 U.S. 417 (1998)),

3689-660: The Newburgh Conspiracy and Shays' Rebellion demonstrated that the Articles of Confederation were not working. Following the successful resolution of commercial and fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade conference between all the states, set for September 1786 in Annapolis, Maryland , with an aim toward resolving further-reaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When

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3808-598: The President of the Continental Congress likewise lacked a veto power (although as a legislative presiding officer, the position was not completely analogous to a chief executive). There were three exceptions. South Carolina initially provided for an absolute veto , but after governor John Rutledge vetoed the new state constitution , he was forced to resign, and his successor signed a constitution that did not provide for any veto power. In Massachusetts ,

3927-497: The Supreme Court of the United States . However, these nominations require Senate confirmation before they may take office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S. district courts , presidents often respect the long-standing tradition of senatorial courtesy . Presidents may also grant pardons and reprieves . Gerald Ford pardoned Richard Nixon

4046-588: The U.S. Constitution emerged. As the nation's first president, George Washington established many norms that would come to define the office. His decision to retire after two terms helped address fears that the nation would devolve into monarchy, and established a precedent that would not be broken until 1940 and would eventually be made permanent by the Twenty-Second Amendment . By the end of his presidency, political parties had developed, with John Adams defeating Thomas Jefferson in 1796,

4165-526: The United States of America . The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . The power of the presidency has grown substantially since the first president, George Washington , took office in 1789. While presidential power has ebbed and flowed over time, the presidency has played an increasingly significant role in American political life since

4284-610: The Watergate scandal , Congress enacted a series of reforms intended to reassert itself. These included the War Powers Resolution , enacted over Nixon's veto in 1973, and the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 that sought to strengthen congressional fiscal powers. By 1976, Gerald Ford conceded that "the historic pendulum" had swung toward Congress, raising the possibility of

4403-573: The Watergate scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon , 418 U.S. 683 (1974), that executive privilege did not apply in cases where a president was attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky scandal , the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v. Jones , 520 U.S. 681 (1997), that

4522-434: The city council . The mayoral veto is a typical feature of "strong mayor" systems in which the mayor is the chief executive and the council is limited to legislative matters. These systems are more common in large cities. The mayors of New York, Los Angeles and Chicago all have veto power, as does the mayor of Washington, D.C. The mayor of Houston , however, does not. The proportion of council votes required to override

4641-490: The convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton of New York led the Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia . Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washington 's attendance to Philadelphia as

4760-559: The separation of powers doctrine. Prior to this ruling, President Clinton had applied the line-item veto to the federal budget 82 times. In 2006, Senator Bill Frist introduced the Legislative Line Item Veto Act of 2006 in the United States Senate . Rather than provide for an actual legislative veto, however, the procedure created by the act provides that, if the president should recommend

4879-456: The "Morton memorandum" directed all BIA superintendents and area directors to disapprove any tribal legislation regulating water use on Indian reservations that required secretarial approval under tribal law. Thus, tribes without such provisions in their constitutions could regulate water use, but those whose constitutions granted a secretarial veto faced an additional obstacle to doing so. Some tribes have amended their constitutions to eliminate

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4998-585: The 1830s and 1840s until debates over slavery began pulling the nation apart in the 1850s. Abraham Lincoln 's leadership during the Civil War has led historians to regard him as one of the nation's greatest presidents. The circumstances of the war and Republican domination of Congress made the office very powerful, and Lincoln's re-election in 1864 was the first time a president had been re-elected since Jackson in 1832. After Lincoln's assassination, his successor Andrew Johnson lost all political support and

5117-547: The 1930s, which contained a provision allowing either house of that legislature to nullify decisions of agencies in the executive branch simply by passing a resolution. In this case, Chadha's deportation was suspended and the House of Representatives passed a resolution overturning the suspension, so that the deportation proceedings would continue. This, the court held, amounted to the House of Representatives passing legislation without

5236-524: The 20th century, especially during the Cold War , the U.S. president was often called "the leader of the free world". Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government and vests executive power in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law and the responsibility to appoint federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory, and judicial officers. Based on constitutional provisions empowering

5355-666: The Armed Forces is delegated to the Department of Defense and is normally exercised through the secretary of defense . The chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved Unified Command Plan (UCP). The president has the power to nominate federal judges , including members of the United States courts of appeals and

5474-590: The British king, typically acting through the Board of Trade . Both vetoes were absolute and derived from the monarch's power to deny royal assent . While the British monarch last used this power within the United Kingdom in 1708, in the colonies the practice continued for much longer. From 1696 to 1765, the king struck down nearly 400 laws that had been adopted by an American colonial legislature and approved by

5593-477: The Constitution grants to the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of much debate throughout history, with Congress at various times granting the president wide authority and at others attempting to restrict that authority. The framers of the Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding the military; Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist No. 69 : The President

5712-601: The Constitutional Convention, the framers overwhelmingly rejected three proposals for an absolute veto. They also rejected proposals for a combined judicial-executive veto along the lines of the New York constitution. The presidential veto power provided by the 1789 Constitution was first exercised on April 5, 1792, when President George Washington vetoed a bill outlining a new apportionment formula. Apportionment described how Congress divides seats in

5831-580: The House of Representatives among the states based on the US census figures. Washington's stated reasons for vetoing the bill were that it did not apportion representatives according to states' relative populations and that it gave eight states more than one representative per 30,000 residents, in violation of the Constitution. The veto power continued to be very rarely used until the presidency of Andrew Jackson , who vetoed 12 bills. Although controversial, none of these vetoes were overridden. Congress first overrode

5950-408: The Senate never considered it, so the bill expired and never became law. In 2009, Senators Russ Feingold and John McCain introduced legislation of a limited version of the line-item veto. This bill would give the president the power to withdraw earmarks in new bills by sending the bill back to Congress minus the line-item vetoed earmark. Congress would then vote on the line-item vetoed bill with

6069-474: The Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union spy. However, the privilege was not formally recognized by the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v. Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (1953), where it was held to be a common law evidentiary privilege. Before the September 11 attacks , use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in frequency. Since 2001, the government has asserted

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6188-483: The United States and other countries. Such agreements, upon receiving the advice and consent of the U.S. Senate (by a two-thirds majority vote), become binding with the force of federal law. While foreign affairs has always been a significant element of presidential responsibilities, advances in technology since the Constitution's adoption have increased presidential power. Where formerly ambassadors were vested with significant power to independently negotiate on behalf of

6307-578: The United States becoming the world's undisputed leading power, Bill Clinton , George W. Bush , and Barack Obama each served two terms as president. Meanwhile, Congress and the nation gradually became more politically polarized, especially following the 1994 mid-term elections that saw Republicans control the House for the first time in 40 years, and the rise of routine filibusters in the Senate in recent decades. Recent presidents have thus increasingly focused on executive orders , agency regulations, and judicial appointments to implement major policies, at

6426-423: The United States, presidents now routinely meet directly with leaders of foreign countries. One of the most important of executive powers is the president's role as commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces . The power to declare war is constitutionally vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military. The exact degree of authority that

6545-538: The White House". Presidents have been criticized for making signing statements when signing congressional legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute it. This practice has been criticized by the American Bar Association as unconstitutional. Conservative commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen executive branch" and "the eclipse of Congress". To allow

6664-488: The beginning of the 20th century, carrying over into the 21st century with notable expansions during the presidencies of Franklin D. Roosevelt and George W. Bush . In modern times, the president is one of the world's most powerful political figures and the leader of the world's only remaining superpower . As the leader of the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP , the president possesses significant domestic and international hard and soft power . For much of

6783-489: The colony's governor. This heavy use of the veto power was included in the bill of particulars in the Declaration of Independence in 1776, which states that the king "has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the common good." In the years immediately following independence, in the Confederation period , most state constitutions did not provide for a gubernatorial veto at all. Nationally,

6902-473: The concurrence of the Senate, and without presenting the legislation to the president for consideration and approval (or veto). Thus, the constitutional principle of bicameralism and the separation of powers doctrine were disregarded in this case, and this legislative veto of executive decisions was struck down. In 1996, the United States Congress passed, and President Bill Clinton signed,

7021-408: The constitution of 1780 provided for a qualified veto , in which a gubernatorial veto could be overridden by a two-thirds vote of each chamber of the legislature. And the 1777 New York constitution established a "Council of Revision" made up of the governor, chancellor and state Supreme Court judges, which could issue a qualified veto of legislation. The Massachusetts and New York constitutions were

7140-463: The constitution. The governor of Guam has a package veto power and a line-item veto power, both of which can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. The governor also has a pocket veto that cannot be overridden. The governor of the CNMI has a package veto and a line-item veto over appropriation bills. The line-item veto is limited to the appropriations themselves, and does not allow

7259-589: The county judge has no veto power, and instead votes as a member of the Commissioners' Court . In New York, counties adopting a charter may choose to have a county executive either with or without veto power. Wisconsin granted a veto to county executives by constitutional amendment in 1962, although as of 2020 , this applies only to twelve counties that have adopted a county executive form of government. Likewise in California, elected county executives have

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7378-435: The court found the language of the Constitution required each bill presented to the president to be either approved or rejected as a whole. An action by which the president might pick and choose which parts of the bill to approve or not approve amounted to the president acting as a legislator instead of an executive and head of state —and particularly as a single legislator acting in place of the entire Congress—thereby violating

7497-552: The death of William Henry Harrison and subsequent poor relations between John Tyler and Congress led to further weakening of the office. Including Van Buren, in the 24 years between 1837 and 1861, six presidential terms would be filled by eight different men, with none serving two terms. The Senate played an important role during this period, with the Great Triumvirate of Henry Clay , Daniel Webster , and John C. Calhoun playing key roles in shaping national policy in

7616-457: The deposed British system of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect to the royal dominion : a superintending body for matters that concerned the entire empire. The states were out from under any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their own respective state governments. The members of Congress elected

7735-461: The executive branch may draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to introduce these drafts into Congress. Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation unless requested changes are made. Many laws enacted by Congress do not address every possible detail, and either explicitly or implicitly delegate powers of implementation to an appropriate federal agency. As

7854-464: The executive branch, and can contribute to the American constitutional tradition. However, unlike a presidential signing statement , a veto statement does not carry much direct weight in the American legal system, because of its function: if Congress fails to override the veto, the bill and veto become legally irrelevant, but if the override succeeds, the veto message is not considered during subsequent executive implementation or judicial interpretation of

7973-475: The expense of legislation and congressional power. Presidential elections in the 21st century have reflected this continuing polarization, with no candidate except Obama in 2008 winning by more than five percent of the popular vote and two, George W. Bush and Donald Trump , winning in the Electoral College while losing the popular vote. The nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress , which

8092-504: The federal government by issuing various types of directives , such as presidential proclamation and executive orders . When the president is lawfully exercising one of the constitutionally conferred presidential responsibilities, the scope of this power is broad. Even so, these directives are subject to judicial review by U.S. federal courts, which can find them to be unconstitutional. Congress can overturn an executive order through legislation. Article II, Section 3, Clause 4 requires

8211-539: The first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination under civilian authority . In 1794, Washington used his constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell the Whiskey Rebellion , a conflict in Western Pennsylvania involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis , this was the "first and only time

8330-492: The first Watergate Seven began on January 8, 1973. The term "Watergate Seven" was coined a few months later, in April 1973, by American politician, lawyer, and political commentator Rep. Ed Koch (D-NY), who, in response to U.S. Senator Lowell P. Weicker Jr. 's indicating that one of the men in the Watergate bugging case had been ordered in the spring of 1972 to keep certain senators and representatives under surveillance , posted

8449-536: The first truly contested presidential election. After Jefferson defeated Adams in 1800, he and his fellow Virginians James Madison and James Monroe would each serve two terms, eventually dominating the nation's politics during the Era of Good Feelings until Adams' son John Quincy Adams won election in 1824 after the Democratic-Republican Party split. The election of Andrew Jackson in 1828

8568-417: The government to act quickly in case of a major domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in session, the president is empowered by Article II, Section   3 of the Constitution to call a special session of one or both houses of Congress. Since John Adams first did so in 1797, the president has called the full Congress to convene for a special session on 27 occasions. Harry S. Truman

8687-442: The governor has additional veto powers, including line-item, amendatory and reduction vetoes. Veto powers also exist in some, but not all, tribal governments. A bill that is passed by both houses of Congress is presented to the president. Presidents approve of legislation by signing it into law. If the president does not approve of the bill and chooses not to sign, they may return it unsigned, within ten days, excluding Sundays, to

8806-515: The governor to strike out substantive provisions. The governor has used this power to provoke legislative change, for example in 2018 with the item veto of the Taulamwaar Sensible CNMI Cannabis Act , which included a veto of a $ 5 registration fee for cannabis licenses because it was too low, which led to subsequent legislation imposing a $ 25 fee. The governor of Puerto Rico has a reduction veto in addition to

8925-436: The governor's veto, the governor can choose to forward the bill to the Secretary of the Interior for review, at which point it will only become law if the secretary approves it within 90 days. Some Samoan legislators have criticized the secretarial veto provision as a throwback to colonial government, but referendums to remove it have been repeatedly defeated, most recently in 2018. Separately from these executive veto powers,

9044-604: The growing federal bureaucracy, presidents have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office of the President of the United States . Within the Executive Office, the president's innermost layer of aides, and their assistants, are located in the White House Office . The president also possesses the power to manage operations of

9163-474: The head of the executive branch, presidents control a vast array of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from Congress. In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress had slid into the hands of presidents. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a "virtual army of 'czars'—each wholly unaccountable to Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for

9282-420: The house of the United States Congress in which it originated, while Congress is in session. The president is constitutionally required to state any objections to the bill in writing, and Congress is required to consider them, and to reconsider the legislation. Returning the unsigned bill to Congress constitutes a veto. If Congress overrides the veto by a two-thirds vote in each house, it becomes law without

9401-454: The law. The president or the state governor may sign the veto statement at a signing ceremony , often with media present, particularly for measures that they wish to disapprove of in a very public fashion. In the Thirteen Colonies , the British colonial government exercised two forms of veto: an absolute veto exercised by the governor of each colony (except for Connecticut, Maryland, and Rhode Island), and another absolute veto exercised by

9520-554: The legislature has retained a legislative veto over certain long-term leases, which the High Court of American Samoa upheld as constitutional in 1987. The vetoes of the governor of the US Virgin Islands has a package veto power and a line-item veto power. Both can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature . The governor also has a pocket veto, which cannot be overridden. The elected governor has held

9639-422: The legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an executive council, and countered by a strong legislature. New York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary governor with veto and appointment power elected to a three-year term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of terms thereafter. It was through the closed-door negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in

9758-603: The line-item veto since 1954, under the Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands . In 1976, the Third Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the existing statutory language did not allow for an override. However, the organic law was amended in 1977 to allow the line-item veto to be overridden. Mayors in a mayor-council government often have a veto power over local ordinances passed by

9877-421: The mayor had only a suspensive veto that the council could override by a simple majority vote. In addition to mayoral vetoes in cities and towns, some states also grant a veto power to the elected executive of some or all counties. Arkansas adopted a constitutional amendment in 1974 that gave all county judges a veto that can be overridden by a three-fifths majority of the quorum court . In Texas, in contrast,

9996-485: The mayoral role was strengthened, becoming an independently elected office with multi-year terms, in part as an effort to limit the political power of immigrants. With this change toward a stronger mayoral role, mayoral veto powers became more common, particularly after 1850. In most cases there was a two-thirds requirement for override; however, in some cases (such as Louisville and in New York City before 1853)

10115-467: The necessity of closely coordinating their efforts against the British , the Continental Congress simultaneously began the process of drafting a constitution that would bind the states together. There were long debates on a number of issues, including representation and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central government. Congress finished work on the Articles of Confederation to establish

10234-512: The office as a position of global leadership. His successors, Harry Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower , each served two terms as the Cold War led the presidency to be viewed as the " leader of the free world ", while John F. Kennedy was a youthful and popular leader who benefited from the rise of television in the 1960s. After Lyndon B. Johnson lost popular support due to the Vietnam War and Richard Nixon 's presidency collapsed in

10353-494: The only state-level vetoes at the time of the constitutional convention in 1787, and served as models for the framing of the veto power in the United States Constitution . With the enactment of the United States Constitution (which took effect on March 4, 1789) veto power was conferred upon the President of the United States. During the Constitutional Convention, the veto was routinely referred to as

10472-423: The original.] In the modern era, pursuant to the War Powers Resolution , Congress must authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never been employed, rendering it ineffectual. Additionally, Congress provides a check to presidential military power through its control over military spending and regulation. Presidents have historically initiated

10591-429: The package and line-item vetoes. The legislature can override any of these vetoes by a two-thirds majority of each chamber. The governor has had the line-item veto since 1917. The governor also has a pocket veto, which cannot be overridden. The governor of American Samoa has package and line-item veto powers, which the legislature can override within 14 months of the veto date. If the legislature has overridden

10710-524: The president (and all other executive branch officers) from simultaneously being a member of Congress. Nevertheless, the modern presidency exerts significant power over legislation, both due to constitutional provisions and historical developments over time. The president's most significant legislative power derives from the Presentment Clause , which gives the president the power to veto any bill passed by Congress . While Congress can override

10829-406: The president believes are needed. Additionally, the president can attempt to shape legislation during the legislative process by exerting influence on individual members of Congress. Presidents possess this power because the Constitution is silent about who can write legislation, but the power is limited because only members of Congress can introduce legislation. The president or other officials of

10948-461: The president in the performance of executive duties. George Washington first claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see Chief Justice John Jay 's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation with Great Britain . While not enshrined in the Constitution or any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for the privilege. When Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress during

11067-504: The president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House and Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no president has ever had to exercise this power. Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed. Nixon v. General Services Administration , 433 U.S. 425 (1977) ( Rehnquist, J. , dissenting ) The president

11186-422: The president personally has absolute immunity from court cases is contested and has been the subject of several Supreme Court decisions. Nixon v. Fitzgerald (1982) dismissed a civil lawsuit against by-then former president Richard Nixon based on his official actions. Clinton v. Jones (1997) decided that a president has no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before becoming president and ruled that

11305-505: The president to "receive Ambassadors." This clause, known as the Reception Clause, has been interpreted to imply that the president possesses broad power over matters of foreign policy, and to provide support for the president's exclusive authority to grant recognition to a foreign government. The Constitution also empowers the president to appoint United States ambassadors, and to propose and chiefly negotiate agreements between

11424-457: The president to appoint and receive ambassadors and conclude treaties with foreign powers, and on subsequent laws enacted by Congress, the modern presidency has primary responsibility for conducting U.S. foreign policy. The role includes responsibility for directing the world's most expensive military , which has the second-largest nuclear arsenal . The president also plays a leading role in federal legislation and domestic policymaking. As part of

11543-516: The president to recommend such measures to Congress which the president deems "necessary and expedient". This is done through the constitutionally-based State of the Union address, which usually outlines the president's legislative proposals for the coming year, and through other formal and informal communications with Congress. The president can be involved in crafting legislation by suggesting, requesting, or even insisting that Congress enact laws that

11662-434: The president's signature. Otherwise, the bill fails to become law. Historically, the Congress has overridden about 7% of presidential vetoes. The votes are made at the qualified majority of the members voting , not of the whole number of the houses' members. A bill becomes law without the president's signature if it is not signed within the ten days allotted, if Congress is still in session. But if Congress adjourns before

11781-426: The president's veto power with the Line Item Veto Act . The legislation empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new legislation, Congress could override

11900-508: The president. The state secrets privilege allows the president and the executive branch to withhold information or documents from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would harm national security . Precedent for the privilege arose early in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again in Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105 (1876), when

12019-568: The president. In recent decades, presidents have also made increasing use of executive orders , agency regulations, and judicial appointments to shape domestic policy. The president is elected indirectly through the Electoral College to a four-year term, along with the vice president . Under the Twenty-second Amendment , ratified in 1951, no person who has been elected to two presidential terms may be elected to

12138-404: The previous thirty years worked towards "undivided presidential control of the executive branch and its agencies". She criticized proponents of the unitary executive theory for expanding "the many existing uncheckable executive powers—such as executive orders, decrees, memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and legislative signing statements—that already allow presidents to enact

12257-424: The privilege also could not be used in civil suits. These cases established the legal precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined. Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees but have weakened that protection for those executive branch communications that do not involve

12376-515: The privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation, thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit 's ruling in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc. Critics of the privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions. The degree to which

12495-500: The process for going to war, but critics have charged that there have been several conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations, including Theodore Roosevelt 's military move into Panama in 1903, the Korean War , the Vietnam War , and the invasions of Grenada in 1983 and Panama in 1989. The amount of military detail handled personally by the president in wartime has varied greatly. George Washington,

12614-540: The rescission of a budgetary line item from a budget bill he previously signed into law—a power he already possesses pursuant to U.S. Const. Article II—the Congress must vote on his request within ten days. Because the legislation that is the subject of the president's request (or "special message", in the language of the bill) was already enacted and signed into law, the vote by the Congress would be ordinary legislative action, not any kind of veto—whether line-item, legislative or any other sort. The House passed this measure, but

12733-493: The size and scope of the federal government, including more executive agencies. The traditionally small presidential staff was greatly expanded, with the Executive Office of the President being created in 1939, none of whom require Senate confirmation. Roosevelt's unprecedented re-election to a third and fourth term, the victory of the United States in World War II , and the nation's growing economy all helped established

12852-462: The system of separation of powers , Article I, Section   7 of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. Since modern presidents are typically viewed as leaders of their political parties, major policymaking is significantly shaped by the outcome of presidential elections, with presidents taking an active role in promoting their policy priorities to members of Congress who are often electorally dependent on

12971-612: The ten days have passed during which the president might have signed the bill, then the bill fails to become law. This procedure is called a pocket veto . Both the president of the United States and US state governors usually issue a veto statement or veto message that provides their reasons for vetoing a measure when returning it to Congress or the state legislature, as required by the US Constitution, state constitutions, or by custom. Those statements do not have precedential value, although their reasoning may be respected within

13090-622: The tradition of throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium , Washington, D.C., on the Washington Senators's Opening Day . Every president since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter , threw out at least one ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star Game , or the World Series , usually with much fanfare. Every president since Theodore Roosevelt has served as honorary president of

13209-407: The veto by its ordinary means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of New York , 524 U.S. 417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be unconstitutional. For most of American history, candidates for president have sought election on the basis of a promised legislative agenda. Article II, Section 3, Clause 2 requires

13328-528: The veto should only be used in cases where a bill was unconstitutional, it is now routinely used in cases where presidents have policy disagreements with a bill. The veto – or threat of a veto – has thus evolved to make the modern presidency a central part of the American legislative process. Specifically, under the Presentment Clause, once a bill has been presented by Congress, the president has three options: In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance

13447-569: Was a significant milestone, as Jackson was not part of the Virginia and Massachusetts elite that had held the presidency for its first 40 years. Jacksonian democracy sought to strengthen the presidency at the expense of Congress, while broadening public participation as the nation rapidly expanded westward. However, his successor, Martin Van Buren , became unpopular after the Panic of 1837 , and

13566-517: Was available as a remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal courts regarding access to personal tax returns in a criminal case brought against Donald Trump by the New York County District Attorney alleging violations of New York state law. As head of state , the president represents the United States government to its own people and represents the nation to the rest of the world. For example, during

13685-539: Was nearly removed from office, with Congress remaining powerful during the two-term presidency of Civil War general Ulysses S. Grant . After the end of Reconstruction , Grover Cleveland would eventually become the first Democratic president elected since before the war, running in three consecutive elections (1884, 1888, 1892) and winning twice. In 1900, William McKinley became the first incumbent to win re-election since Grant in 1872. After McKinley's assassination by Leon Czolgosz in 1901, Theodore Roosevelt became

13804-463: Was not born in India, he was not an Indian citizen. Because his parents were not Kenyan citizens, he was not Kenyan. Thus, he had nowhere to go when his student visa expired because neither country would take him, so he overstayed his visa and was ordered to show cause why he should not be deported from the United States. The Immigration and Nationality Act was one of many acts of Congress passed since

13923-682: Was the case for example in Puerto Rico under the Jones-Shafroth Act of 1917, and in the United States Virgin Islands (USVI) until 1968. In Guam and the USVI, the territory's organic law defines the governor's veto powers. In Puerto Rico, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and American Samoa, which are governed by a constitution rather than federal statute, veto powers are defined in

14042-489: Was the first branch of government described in the Constitution , to be the dominant branch of government; however, they did not expect a strong executive department. However, presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in claims that the modern presidency has become too powerful, unchecked, unbalanced, and "monarchist" in nature. In 2008 professor Dana D. Nelson expressed belief that presidents over

14161-752: Was the most recent to do so in July 1948, known as the Turnip Day Session . In addition, prior to ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in 1933, which brought forward the date on which Congress convenes from December to January, newly inaugurated presidents would routinely call the Senate to meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. In practice, the power has fallen into disuse in the modern era as Congress now formally remains in session year-round, convening pro forma sessions every three days even when ostensibly in recess. Correspondingly,

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