109-417: Waeringopteridae is a family of eurypterids , an extinct group of aquatic arthropods . The Waeringopteridae is the only family classified as part of the superfamily Waeringopteroidea , which in turn is classified within the infraorder Diploperculata in the suborder Eurypterina . The earliest known member of the group, Orcanopterus , has been recovered from deposits of Katian ( Late Ordovician ) age and
218-578: A cosmopolitan distribution . Though the eurypterids continued to be abundant and diversify during the Early Devonian (for instance leading to the evolution of the pterygotid Jaekelopterus , the largest of all arthropods), the group was one of many heavily affected by the Late Devonian extinction . The extinction event, only known to affect marine life (particularly trilobites, brachiopods and reef -building organisms) effectively crippled
327-509: A cuticle composed of proteins and chitin . As in other chelicerates , the body was divided into two tagmata (sections); the frontal prosoma (head) and posterior opisthosoma (abdomen). The prosoma was covered by a carapace (sometimes called the "prosomal shield") on which both compound eyes and the ocelli (simple eye-like sensory organs) were located. The prosoma also bore six pairs of appendages which are usually referred to as appendage pairs I to VI. The first pair of appendages,
436-408: A lung , plastron or a pseudotrachea . Plastrons are organs that some arthropods evolved secondarily to breathe air underwater. This is considered an unlikely explanation since eurypterids had evolved in water from the start and they would not have organs evolved from air-breathing organs present. In addition, plastrons are generally exposed on outer parts of the body while the eurypterid gill tract
545-420: A 15.2 millimeter (0.6 inch) long carapace, had eyes 4.5 mm (2 in) long and 2.2 mm (0.1 in) wide. The ocelli are preserved, and were placed in the center of the carapace, immediately behind the eyes. The metastoma (a large plate part of the abdomen ) was long, truncated (shortened as by cutting it) at the base and cordate (heart-shaped) in the anterior (frontal) part. One specimen preserves
654-434: A complex termination of the genital appendage. Therefore, Pittsfordipterus is the sister group (closest relative) of Bassipterus . Bassipterus was also similar to Parahughmilleria , a derived adelophthalmid whose metastoma, telson and body were slightly differentiated. This has led some authors to synonymize Bassipterus with Parahughmilleria , though this is not currently supported. The cladogram below presents
763-461: A dual respiratory system was present, which would have allowed for short periods of time in terrestrial environments. The name Eurypterida comes from the Ancient Greek words εὐρύς ( eurús ), meaning 'broad' or 'wide', and πτερόν ( pterón ), meaning 'wing', referring to the pair of wide swimming appendages present in many members of the group. The eurypterid order includes
872-742: A gait like that of most modern insects. The weight of its long abdomen would have been balanced by two heavy and specialized frontal appendages, and the center of gravity might have been adjustable by raising and positioning the tail. Preserved fossilized eurypterid trackways tend to be large and heteropodous and often have an associated telson drag mark along the mid-line (as with the Scottish Hibbertopterus track). Such trackways have been discovered on every continent except for South America. In some places where eurypterid fossil remains are otherwise rare, such as in South Africa and
981-493: A keel) dorsally towards the end, which was a very sharped point. The specimen PE 6208 had a 32.5 mm (1.3 in) long telson. The ornamentation in Bassipterus is well known and developed. The carapace was covered by triangular scales. The tergites and abdominal plates had mucrones (sharped points) typical of Adelophthalmidae , but these were considerably larger and more prominent than in related genera. In some places,
1090-416: A manner similar to modern horseshoe crabs, by grabbing and shredding food with their appendages before pushing it into their mouth using their chelicerae. Fossils preserving digestive tracts have been reported from fossils of various eurypterids, among them Carcinosoma , Acutiramus and Eurypterus . Though a potential anal opening has been reported from the telson of a specimen of Buffalopterus , it
1199-415: A metastoma of 8.3 mm (0.3 in) in length and 5 mm (0.2 in) in width. Of the appendages (limbs), the swimming legs (sixth pair of appendages) are the only known ones. These were of Hughmilleria -type (with enlarged seventh and eighth leg segments and the ninth very small ), but in this species , it was serrated along the anterior edge of the sixth to seventh joints. The terminal joint
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#17328013485901308-425: A meter (1.64 ft) even if the extended chelicerae are not included. Two other eurypterids have also been estimated to have reached lengths of 2.5 metres; Erettopterus grandis (closely related to Jaekelopterus ) and Hibbertopterus wittebergensis , but E. grandis is very fragmentary and the H. wittenbergensis size estimate is based on trackway evidence, not fossil remains. The family of Jaekelopterus ,
1417-471: A rowing type of propulsion similar to that of crabs and water beetles . Larger individuals may have been capable of underwater flying (or subaqueous flight ) in which the motion and shape of the paddles are enough to generate lift , similar to the swimming of sea turtles and sea lions . This type of movement has a relatively slower acceleration rate than the rowing type, especially since adults have proportionally smaller paddles than juveniles. However, since
1526-553: Is a genital appendage. This appendage, an elongated rod with an internal duct, is found in two distinct morphs, generally referred to as "type A" and "type B". These genital appendages are often preserved prominently in fossils and have been the subject of various interpretations of eurypterid reproduction and sexual dimorphism. Type A appendages are generally longer than those of type B. In some genera they are divided into different numbers of sections, such as in Eurypterus where
1635-495: Is a lightweight build. Factors such as locomotion, energy costs in molting and respiration, as well as the actual physical properties of the exoskeleton , limit the size that arthropods can reach. A lightweight construction significantly decreases the influence of these factors. Pterygotids were particularly lightweight, with most fossilized large body segments preserving as thin and unmineralized. Lightweight adaptations are present in other giant paleozoic arthropods as well, such as
1744-438: Is almost completely known, with the first to fifth pair of limbs and type B genital appendage being the only unknown body parts. The body had a lanceolate (lance-shaped) and streamlined shape. The prosoma ("head") was long, rounded and tray-shaped. The carapace ( dorsal plate of the head) was surrounded by a narrow marginal rim, with eyes placed frontally, placed intramarginally (within the margin) and unusually long. PE 6139,
1853-529: Is also possible and the structure may represent the unfused tips of the appendages. Located between the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the Blattfüsse associated with the type A appendages is a set of organs traditionally described as either "tubular organs" or "horn organs". These organs are most often interpreted as spermathecae (organs for storing sperm ), though this function is yet to be proven conclusively. In arthropods, spermathecae are used to store
1962-733: Is likely to have appeared first either during the Early Ordovician or Late Cambrian period. With approximately 250 species, the Eurypterida is the most diverse Paleozoic chelicerate order. Following their appearance during the Ordovician, eurypterids became major components of marine faunas during the Silurian , from which the majority of eurypterid species have been described. The Silurian genus Eurypterus accounts for more than 90% of all known eurypterid specimens. Though
2071-489: Is located behind the Blattfüssen . Instead, among arthropod respiratory organs, the eurypterid gill tracts most closely resemble the pseudotracheae found in modern isopods . These organs, called pseudotracheae, because of some resemblance to the tracheae (windpipes) of air-breathing organisms, are lung-like and present within the pleopods (back legs) of isopods. The structure of the pseudotracheae has been compared to
2180-487: Is made up of the first six exoskeleton segments fused together into a larger structure. The seventh segment (thus the first opisthosomal segment) is referred to as the metastoma and the eighth segment (distinctly plate-like) is called the operculum and contains the genital aperature. The underside of this segment is occupied by the genital operculum, a structure originally evolved from ancestral seventh and eighth pair of appendages. In its center, as in modern horseshoe crabs,
2289-521: Is more likely that the anus was opened through the thin cuticle between the last segment before the telson and the telson itself, as in modern horseshoe crabs. Eurypterid coprolites discovered in deposits of Ordovician age in Ohio containing fragments of a trilobite and eurypterid Megalograptus ohioensis in association with full specimens of the same eurypterid species have been suggested to represent evidence of cannibalism . Similar coprolites referred to
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#17328013485902398-544: Is much more of a marine influence in many of the sections yielding Adelophthalmus than has previously been acknowledged." Similarly, a study of the eurypterid Hibbertopterus from the Carboniferous of New Mexico concluded that the habitat of some eurypterids "may need to be re-evaluated". The sole surviving eurypterine family, Adelophthalmidae, was represented by only a single genus, Adelophthalmus . The hibbertopterids, mycteroptids and Adelophthalmus survived into
2507-638: Is possible that many eurypterid species thought to be distinct actually represent juvenile specimens of other species, with paleontologists rarely considering the influence of ontogeny when describing new species. Studies on a well-preserved fossil assemblage of eurypterids from the Pragian -aged Beartooth Butte Formation in Cottonwood Canyon , Wyoming , composed of multiple specimens of various developmental stages of eurypterids Jaekelopterus and Strobilopterus , revealed that eurypterid ontogeny
2616-431: Is relatively long in comparison to modern arthropods, other members of Diploperculata, such as the pterygotids or the carcinosomatids , reached much larger sizes, surpassing two meters. The Waeringopteridae is the only family within the superfamily Waeringopteroidea and contains the genera Grossopterus , Orcanopterus and Waeringopterus . The cladogram below presents the inferred phylogenetic positions of most of
2725-439: Is the first record of land locomotion by a eurypterid. The trackway provides evidence that some eurypterids could survive in terrestrial environments, at least for short periods of time, and reveals information about the stylonurine gait. In Hibbertopterus , as in most eurypterids, the pairs of appendages are different in size (referred to as a heteropodous limb condition). These differently sized pairs would have moved in phase, and
2834-816: Is the metastoma becoming proportionally less wide. This ontogenetic change has been observed in members of several superfamilies, such as the Eurypteroidea, the Pterygotioidea and the Moselopteroidea . No fossil gut contents from eurypterids are known, so direct evidence of their diet is lacking. The eurypterid biology is particularly suggestive of a carnivorous lifestyle. Not only were many large (in general, most predators tend to be larger than their prey), but they had stereoscopic vision (the ability to perceive depth). The legs of many eurypterids were covered in thin spines, used both for locomotion and
2943-418: Is unlikely the "gill tract" contained functional gills when comparing the organ to gills in other invertebrates and even fish. Previous interpretations often identified the eurypterid "gills" as homologous with those of other groups (hence the terminology), with gas exchange occurring within the spongy tract and a pattern of branchio-cardiac and dendritic veins (as in related groups) carrying oxygenated blood into
3052-532: The Stylonuroidea , Kokomopteroidea and Mycteropoidea as well as eurypterine groups such as the Pterygotioidea, Eurypteroidea and Waeringopteroidea . The most successful eurypterid by far was the Middle to Late Silurian Eurypterus , a generalist , equally likely to have engaged in predation or scavenging . Thought to have hunted mainly small and soft-bodied invertebrates, such as worms , species of
3161-536: The coxae (limb segments) used for feeding. These appendages were generally walking legs that were cylindrical in shape and were covered in spines in some species. In most lineages, the limbs tended to get larger the farther back they were. In the Eurypterina suborder , the larger of the two eurypterid suborders, the sixth pair of appendages was also modified into a swimming paddle to aid in traversing aquatic environments. The opisthosoma comprised 12 segments and
3270-546: The holotype (PE 6201, an almost complete specimen), seven paratypes and dozens of fragments. Most of the fossils were found in the Wills Creek Formation of Bass , West Virginia , as well as an isolated carapace of the same formation in Cumberland , Maryland (previously referred to Hughmilleria ). The name Bassipterus is translated as "wing from Bass", with the first word of the name referring to
3379-442: The rhizodonts , were the new apex predators in marine environments. However, various recent findings raise doubts about this, and suggest that these eurypterids were euryhaline forms that lived in marginal marine environments, such as estuaries, deltas, lagoons, and coastal ponds. One argument is paleobiogeographical; pterygotoid distribution seems to require oceanic dispersal. A recent review of Adelophthalmoidea admitted that "There
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3488-405: The spermatophore received from males. This would imply that the type A appendage is the female morph and the type B appendage is the male. Further evidence for the type A appendages representing the female morph of genital appendages comes in their more complex construction (a general trend for female arthropod genitalia). It is possible that the greater length of the type A appendage means that it
3597-678: The telson , the posteriormost division of the body, which in most species took the form of a blade-like shape. In some lineages, notably the Pterygotioidea , the Hibbertopteridae and the Mycteroptidae , the telson was flattened and may have been used as a rudder while swimming. Some genera within the superfamily Carcinosomatoidea , notably Eusarcana , had a telson similar to that of modern scorpions and may have been capable of using it to inject venom . The coxae of
3706-539: The Devonian, large two meter (6.5+ ft) pterygotids such as Acutiramus were already present during the Late Silurian. Their ecology ranged from generalized predatory behavior to ambush predation and some, such as Pterygotus itself, were active apex predators in Late Silurian marine ecosystems. The pterygotids were also evidently capable of crossing oceans, becoming one of only two eurypterid groups to achieve
3815-896: The Late Ludlow ( Ludfordian ) and Early Pridoli epochs of the Wills Creek Formation of West Virginia and Maryland, United States . In the Marylander part of the formation, fossils of other eurypterids have been found, such as Eurypterus remipes or Waeringopterus cumberlandicus together with an indeterminate species of the ostracod Leperditia . On the other hand, in the West Virginian section, remains of W. cumberlandicus , Erettopterus exophthalmus , Parahughmilleria bellistriata and Stoermeropterus nodosus have been associated, as well as unclassified brachiopods and bivalves . Bassipterus lived in
3924-606: The Late Silurian age in West Virginia and Maryland , United States . The genus is named after Bass, where most of the fossils have been recovered. Bassipterus was a well-known basal ("primitive") genus that was distinguished from the more derived adelophthalmids by the specialization of its genital operculum (a plate-like segment which contains the genital aperture) and its long and narrow eyes , being Pittsfordipterus ' s closest relative. Bassipterus
4033-825: The Middle Ordovician suggests that eurypterids either originated during the Early Ordovician and experienced a rapid and explosive radiation and diversification soon after the first forms evolved, or that the group originated much earlier, perhaps during the Cambrian period. As such, the exact eurypterid time of origin remains unknown. Though fossils referred to as "primitive eurypterids" have occasionally been described from deposits of Cambrian or even Precambrian age, they are not recognized as eurypterids, and sometimes not even as related forms, today. Some animals previously seen as primitive eurypterids, such as
4142-602: The Middle Ordovician, 467.3 million years ago . There are also reports of even earlier fossil eurypterids in the Fezouata Biota of Late Tremadocian (Early Ordovician) age in Morocco , but these have yet to be thoroughly studied, and are likely to be peytoiid appendages. Pentecopterus was a relatively derived eurypterid, part of the megalograptid family within the carcinosomatoid superfamily. Its derived position suggests that most eurypterid clades, at least within
4251-658: The Middle Silurian and the Early Devonian, with an absolute peak in diversity during the Pridoli epoch , 423 to 419.2 million years ago, of the very latest Silurian. This peak in diversity has been recognized since the early twentieth century; of the approximately 150 species of eurypterids known in 1916, more than half were from the Silurian and a third were from the Late Silurian alone. Though stylonurine eurypterids generally remained rare and low in number, as had been
4360-467: The Permian. Bassipterus Bassipterus ("wing from Bass ") is a genus of eurypterid , an extinct group of aquatic arthropods . Bassipterus is classified as part of the family Adelophthalmidae , the only clade within the derived ("advanced") Adelophthalmoidea superfamily of eurypterids. Fossils of the single and type species , B. virgnicus , have been discovered in deposits of
4469-555: The Pterygotidae, is noted for several unusually large species. Both Acutiramus , whose largest member A. bohemicus measured 2.1 meters (6.9 ft), and Pterygotus , whose largest species P. grandidentatus measured 1.75 meters (5.7 ft), were gigantic. Several different contributing factors to the large size of the pterygotids have been suggested, including courtship behaviour, predation and competition over environmental resources. Giant eurypterids were not limited to
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4578-598: The Stylonurina, this appendage takes the form of a long and slender walking leg, while in the Eurypterina, the leg is modified and broadened into a swimming paddle. Other than the swimming paddle, the legs of many eurypterines were far too small to do much more than allow them to crawl across the sea floor . In contrast, a number of stylonurines had elongated and powerful legs that might have allowed them to walk on land (similar to modern crabs ). A fossil trackway
4687-459: The West Virginian unincorporated community of Bass and the last word composed of the Greek word πτερόν ( pteron , wing). Although Kjellesvig-Waering and Caster initially classified Bassipterus in the family Hughmilleriidae , Victor P. Tollerton, Jr. moved the genus along with others to the new family Adelophthalmidae. In 2004, the paleontologist Odd Erik Tetlie concluded that Bassipterus
4796-550: The abundance and diversity previously seen within the eurypterids. A major decline in diversity had already begun during the Early Devonian and eurypterids were rare in marine environments by the Late Devonian. During the Frasnian stage four families went extinct, and the later Famennian saw an additional five families going extinct. As marine groups were the most affected, the eurypterids were primarily impacted within
4905-537: The ancient continent of Laurentia , and demersal (living on the seafloor ) and basal animals from the continents Avalonia and Gondwana. The Laurentian predators, classified in the family Megalograptidae (comprising the genera Echinognathus , Megalograptus and Pentecopterus ), are likely to represent the first truly successful eurypterid group, experiencing a small radiation during the Late Ordovician. Eurypterids were most diverse and abundant between
5014-624: The ancient continent of Laurentia , with the only species known from outside of it being a Devonian species recovered from Germany . It is thus considered likely that the group originated in Laurentia before spreading to Germany during the Devonian. As the fossil record of the group is extremely poor, little is known of the morphology of the taxa within the group. Although confirmed by phylogenetic analyses as monophyletic, and routinely used within eurypterid taxonomy, "Waeringopteroidea" and "Waeringopteridae" are as of yet not formally published clades,
5123-442: The animal in question could possibly have measured just short of 2 meters (6.6 ft) in length. More robust than the pterygotids, this giant Hibbertopterus would possibly have rivalled the largest pterygotids in weight, if not surpassed them, and as such be among the heaviest arthropods. The two eurypterid suborders, Eurypterina and Stylonurina , are distinguished primarily by the morphology of their final pair of appendages. In
5232-454: The appendage via tracts, but these supposed tracts remain unpreserved in available fossil material. Type B appendages, assumed male, would have produced, stored and perhaps shaped spermatophore in a heart-shaped structure on the dorsal surface of the appendage. A broad genital opening would have allowed large amounts of spermatophore to be released at once. The long furca associated with type B appendages, perhaps capable of being lowered like
5341-414: The body. The primary analogy used in previous studies has been horseshoe crabs, though their gill structure and that of eurypterids are remarkably different. In horseshoe crabs, the gills are more complex and composed of many lamellae (plates) which give a larger surface area used for gas exchange. In addition, the gill tract of eurypterids is proportionally much too small to support them if it is analogous to
5450-458: The case during the preceding Ordovician, eurypterine eurypterids experienced a rapid rise in diversity and number. In most Silurian fossil beds, eurypterine eurypterids account for 90% of all eurypterids present. Though some were likely already present by the Late Ordovician (simply missing from the fossil record so far), a vast majority of eurypterid groups are first recorded in strata of Silurian age. These include both stylonurine groups such as
5559-420: The coastlines and shallow inland seas of Euramerica. During the Late Silurian the pterygotid eurypterids, large and specialized forms with several new adaptations, such as large and flattened telsons capable of being used as rudders, and large and specialized chelicerae with enlarged pincers for handling (and potentially in some cases killing) prey appeared. Though the largest members of the family appeared in
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#17328013485905668-695: The cuticle) after which they underwent rapid and immediate growth. Some arthropods, such as insects and many crustaceans, undergo extreme changes over the course of maturing. Chelicerates, including eurypterids, are in general considered to be direct developers, undergoing no extreme changes after hatching (though extra body segments and extra limbs may be gained over the course of ontogeny in some lineages, such as xiphosurans and sea spiders ). Whether eurypterids were true direct developers (with hatchlings more or less being identical to adults) or hemianamorphic direct developers (with extra segments and limbs potentially being added during ontogeny) has been controversial in
5777-409: The eurypterine suborder, had already been established at this point during the Middle Ordovician. The earliest known stylonurine eurypterid, Brachyopterus , is also Middle Ordovician in age. The presence of members of both suborders indicates that primitive stem-eurypterids would have preceded them, though these are so far unknown in the fossil record. The presence of several eurypterid clades during
5886-411: The eurypterine suborder. Only one group of stylonurines (the family Parastylonuridae ) went extinct in the Early Devonian. Only two families of eurypterines survived into the Late Devonian at all ( Adelophthalmidae and Waeringopteridae). The eurypterines experienced their most major declines in the Early Devonian, during which over 50% of their diversity was lost in just 10 million years. Stylonurines, on
5995-515: The eurypterine swimming paddles varied from group to group. In the Eurypteroidea , the paddles were similar in shape to oars. The condition of the joints in their appendages ensured their paddles could only be moved in near-horizontal planes, not upwards or downwards. Some other groups, such as the Pterygotioidea, would not have possessed this condition and were probably able to swim faster. Most eurypterines are generally agreed to have utilized
6104-454: The family Pterygotidae. An isolated 12.7 centimeters (5.0 in) long fossil metastoma of the carcinosomatoid eurypterid Carcinosoma punctatum indicates the animal would have reached a length of 2.2 meters (7.2 ft) in life, rivalling the pterygotids in size. Another giant was Pentecopterus decorahensis , a primitive carcinosomatoid, which is estimated to have reached lengths of 1.7 meters (5.6 ft). Typical of large eurypterids
6213-491: The fossil deposits in areas that were part of the ancient continent of Laurentia . Only the last known surviving species, Grossopterus overathi , from the Devonian of Germany , is known from outside of Laurentia and it is thus assumed that the group originated in Laurentia before they spread to modern-day Germany in the Devonian. Further fossil finds are required to properly study the distribution and evolutionary history of
6322-476: The found tracks each being about 7.6 centimeters (3.0 in) in diameter. Other eurypterid ichnogenera include Merostomichnites (though it is likely that many specimens actually represent trackways of crustaceans) and Arcuites (which preserves grooves made by the swimming appendages). In eurypterids, the respiratory organs were located on the ventral body wall (the underside of the opisthosoma). Blattfüsse , evolved from opisthosomal appendages, covered
6431-582: The gathering of food. In some groups, these spiny appendages became heavily specialized. In some eurypterids in the Carcinosomatoidea, forward-facing appendages were large and possessed enormously elongated spines (as in Mixopterus and Megalograptus ). In derived members of the Pterygotioidea, the appendages were completely without spines, but had specialized claws instead. Other eurypterids, lacking these specialized appendages, likely fed in
6540-759: The genera included in the three most derived superfamilies of the Eurypterina suborder of eurypterids ( Adelophthalmoidea , Pterygotioidea and the waeringopteroids), as inferred by O. Erik Tetlie and Markus Poschmann in 2008, based on the results of a 2008 analysis specifically pertaining to the Adelophthalmoidea and a preceding 2004 analysis. Orcanopterus Waeringopterus Grossopterus Eysyslopterus Bassipterus Pittsfordipterus Nanahughmilleria Parahughmilleria Adelophthalmus Hughmilleria Herefordopterus Slimonia Erettopterus Pterygotus Acutiramus Jaekelopterus "Waeringopteridae" and
6649-656: The genus Strabops from the Cambrian of Missouri , are now classified as aglaspidids or strabopids . The aglaspidids, once seen as primitive chelicerates, are now seen as a group more closely related to trilobites. The fossil record of Ordovician eurypterids is quite poor. The majority of eurypterids once reportedly known from the Ordovician have since proven to be misidentifications or pseudofossils . Today only 11 species can be confidently identified as representing Ordovician eurypterids. These taxa fall into two distinct ecological categories; large and active predators from
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#17328013485906758-525: The genus (of which the most common is the type species, E. remipes ) account for more than 90% (perhaps as many as 95%) of all known fossil eurypterid specimens. Despite their vast number, Eurypterus are only known from a relatively short temporal range, first appearing during the Late Llandovery epoch (around 432 million years ago) and being extinct by the end of the Pridoli epoch. Eurypterus
6867-429: The giant millipede Arthropleura , and are possibly vital for the evolution of giant size in arthropods. In addition to the lightweight giant eurypterids, some deep-bodied forms in the family Hibbertopteridae were also very large. A carapace from the Carboniferous of Scotland referred to the species Hibbertoperus scouleri measures 65 cm (26 in) wide. As Hibbertopterus was very wide compared to its length,
6976-412: The gills of other groups. To be functional gills, they would have to have been highly efficient and would have required a highly efficient circulatory system. It is considered unlikely, however, that these factors would be enough to explain the large discrepancy between gill tract size and body size. It has been suggested instead that the "gill tract" was an organ for breathing air, perhaps actually being
7085-587: The group continued to diversify during the subsequent Devonian period, the eurypterids were heavily affected by the Late Devonian extinction event . They declined in numbers and diversity until becoming extinct during the Permian–Triassic extinction event (or sometime shortly before) 251.9 million years ago. Although popularly called "sea scorpions", only the earliest eurypterids were marine ; many later forms lived in brackish or fresh water , and they were not true scorpions . Some studies suggest that
7194-432: The group lived primarily in the waters around and within the ancient supercontinent of Euramerica . Only a handful of eurypterid groups spread beyond the confines of Euramerica and a few genera, such as Adelophthalmus and Pterygotus , achieved a cosmopolitan distribution with fossils being found worldwide. Like all other arthropods , eurypterids possessed segmented bodies and jointed appendages (limbs) covered in
7303-663: The group. The temporal range of the group extends from the Late Ordovician ( Orcanopterus ) to the Early Devonian ( Grossopterus ). Eurypterid Eurypterids , often informally called sea scorpions , are a group of extinct arthropods that form the order Eurypterida . The earliest known eurypterids date to the Darriwilian stage of the Ordovician period 467.3 million years ago . The group
7412-855: The inferred phylogenetic positions of most of the genera included in the three most derived superfamilies of the Diploperculata infraorder of eurypterids (Adelophthalmoidea, Pterygotioidea and the waeringopteroids ), as inferred by Odd Erik Tetlie and Markus Poschmann in 2008, based on the results of a 2008 analysis specifically pertaining to the Adelophthalmoidea and a preceding 2004 analysis. Orcanopterus Waeringopterus Grossopterus Eysyslopterus Bassipterus Pittsfordipterus Nanahughmilleria Parahughmilleria Adelophthalmus Hughmilleria Herefordopterus Slimonia Erettopterus Pterygotus Acutiramus Jaekelopterus Bassipterus fossils have been recovered from Silurian deposits of
7521-580: The invaginations leading to asphyxiation . Furthermore, most eurypterids would have been aquatic their entire lives. No matter how much time was spent on land, organs for respiration in underwater environments must have been present. True gills, expected to have been located within the branchial chamber within the Blattfüssen , remain unknown in eurypterids. Like all arthropods, eurypterids matured and grew through static developmental stages referred to as instars . These instars were punctuated by periods during which eurypterids went through ecdysis (molting of
7630-491: The larger sizes of adults mean a higher drag coefficient , using this type of propulsion is more energy-efficient. Some eurypterines, such as Mixopterus (as inferred from attributed fossil trackways), were not necessarily good swimmers. It likely kept mostly to the bottom, using its swimming paddles for occasional bursts of movements vertically, with the fourth and fifth pairs of appendages positioned backwards to produce minor movement forwards. While walking, it probably used
7739-505: The largest known arthropod ever to have lived, is Jaekelopterus rhenaniae . A chelicera from the Emsian Klerf Formation of Willwerath, Germany measured 36.4 centimeters (14.3 in) in length, but is missing a quarter of its length, suggesting that the full chelicera would have been 45.5 centimeters (17.9 in) long. If the proportions between body length and chelicerae match those of its closest relatives, where
7848-523: The largest known arthropods ever to have lived. The largest, Jaekelopterus , reached 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) in length. Eurypterids were not uniformly large and most species were less than 20 centimeters (8 in) long; the smallest eurypterid, Alkenopterus , was only 2.03 centimeters (0.80 in) long. Eurypterid fossils have been recovered from every continent. A majority of fossils are from fossil sites in North America and Europe because
7957-497: The last ever radiation within the eurypterids, which gave rise to several new forms capable of "sweep-feeding" (raking through the substrate in search of prey). Only three eurypterid families—Adelophthalmidae, Hibbertopteridae and Mycteroptidae—survived the extinction event in its entirety. It was assumed that these were all freshwater animals, which would have rendered the eurypterids extinct in marine environments, and with marine eurypterid predators gone, sarcopterygians , such as
8066-488: The latest known surviving member, Grossopterus , has been recovered from deposits of Siegenian ( Early Devonian ) age. The name Waeringopteridae is derived from the type genus Waeringopterus , which is named in honor of eurypterid researcher Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering. Waeringopterid fossils are very rare and the family only contains five known species classified in three different genera ( Waeringopterus , Orcanopterus and Grossopterus ). Four of these species are from
8175-470: The mucrones touched each other and formed a rhombic ornamentation, while in others, they were so elongated that they resembled the linear striations present in the more derived ("advanced") genus Adelophthalmus . The morphology of the genital operculum (a plate-like segment which contains the genital aperture) allows an easy differentiation between Bassipterus and the other adelophthalmids. The type A genital appendage ( assumed to represent females )
8284-422: The names are usually within quotation marks and/or are noted to not be properly valid names that derive from a thesis. The group is also sometimes referred to as the "waeringopteroid clade" rather than as the "Waeringopteroidea" within studies to differentiate it from the properly described superfamilies, pending the formal publication of Waeringopteroidea. Out of the five known waeringopterid species, four are from
8393-417: The names instead deriving from a 2004 thesis by O. Erik Tetlie. Some researchers refer to the group more formally as the " waeringopteroid clade " rather than as the superfamily "Waeringopteroidea", pending a formal publication. Although waeringopterid fossils remain rare and in most cases fragmentary and very little concrete information on the group can confidently be established due to the poor fossil record,
8502-507: The only pair placed before the mouth, is called the chelicerae ( homologous to the fangs of spiders). They were equipped with small pincers used to manipulate food fragments and push them into the mouth. In one lineage, the Pterygotidae , the chelicerae were large and long, with strong, well-developed teeth on specialised chelae (claws). The subsequent pairs of appendages, numbers II to VI, possessed gnathobases (or "tooth-plates") on
8611-812: The opisthosoma was covered in structures evolved from modified opisthosomal appendages. Throughout the opisthosoma, these structures formed plate-like structures termed Blattfüsse ( lit. ' leaf-feet ' in German). These created a branchial chamber (gill tract) between preceding Blattfüsse and the ventral surface of the opisthosoma itself, which contained the respiratory organs. The second to sixth opisthosomal segments also contained oval or triangular organs that have been interpreted as organs that aid in respiration. These organs, termed Kiemenplatten or "gill tracts", would potentially have aided eurypterids to breathe air above water, while Blattfüssen , similar to organs in modern horseshoe crabs , would cover
8720-424: The other hand, persisted through the period with more or less consistent diversity and abundance but were affected during the Late Devonian, when many of the older groups were replaced by new forms in the families Mycteroptidae and Hibbertopteridae. It is possible that the catastrophic extinction patterns seen in the eurypterine suborder were related to the emergence of more derived fish. Eurypterine decline began at
8829-552: The parts that serve for underwater respiration . The appendages of opisthosomal segments 1 and 2 (the seventh and eighth segments overall) were fused into a structure termed the genital operculum, occupying most of the underside of the opisthosomal segment 2. Near the anterior margin of this structure, the genital appendage (also called the Zipfel or the median abdominal appendage) protruded. This appendage, often preserved very prominently, has consistently been interpreted as part of
8938-433: The past. Hemianamorphic direct development has been observed in many arthropod groups, such as trilobites , megacheirans , basal crustaceans and basal myriapods . True direct development has on occasion been referred to as a trait unique to arachnids . There have been few studies on eurypterid ontogeny as there is a general lack of specimens in the fossil record that can confidently be stated to represent juveniles. It
9047-434: The point when jawless fish first became more developed and coincides with the emergence of placoderms (armored fish) in both North America and Europe. Stylonurines of the surviving hibbertopterid and mycteroptid families completely avoided competition with fish by evolving towards a new and distinct ecological niche. These families experienced a radiation and diversification through the Late Devonian and Early Carboniferous,
9156-452: The ratio between claw size and body length is relatively consistent, the specimen of Jaekelopterus that possessed the chelicera in question would have measured between 233 and 259 centimeters (7.64 and 8.50 ft), an average 2.5 meters (8.2 ft), in length. With the chelicerae extended, another meter (3.28 ft) would be added to this length. This estimate exceeds the maximum body size of all other known giant arthropods by almost half
9265-445: The reproduction and sexual dimorphism of eurypterids is difficult, as they are only known from fossilized shells and carapaces. In some cases, there might not be enough apparent differences to separate the sexes based on morphology alone. Sometimes two sexes of the same species have been interpreted as two different species, as was the case with two species of Drepanopterus ( D. bembycoides and D. lobatus ). The eurypterid prosoma
9374-458: The reproductive system and occurs in two recognized types, assumed to correspond to male and female. Eurypterids were highly variable in size, depending on factors such as lifestyle, living environment and taxonomic affinity . Sizes around 100 centimeters (3.3 ft) are common in most eurypterid groups. The smallest eurypterid, Alkenopterus burglahrensis , measured just 2.03 centimeters (0.80 in) in length. The largest eurypterid, and
9483-435: The rest of the former supercontinent Gondwana , the discoveries of trackways both predate and outnumber eurypterid body fossils. Eurypterid trackways have been referred to several ichnogenera, most notably Palmichnium (defined as a series of four tracks often with an associated drag mark in the mid-line), wherein the holotype of the ichnospecies P. kosinkiorum preserves the largest eurypterid footprints known to date with
9592-405: The same genera. The primary function of the long, assumed female, type A appendages was likely to take up spermatophore from the substrate into the reproductive tract rather than to serve as an ovipositor, as arthropod ovipositors are generally longer than eurypterid type A appendages. By rotating the sides of the operculum, it would have been possible to lower the appendage from the body. Due to
9701-413: The short stride length indicates that Hibbertopterus crawled with an exceptionally slow speed, at least on land. The large telson was dragged along the ground and left a large central groove behind the animal. Slopes in the tracks at random intervals suggest that the motion was jerky. The gait of smaller stylonurines, such as Parastylonurus , was probably faster and more precise. The functionality of
9810-429: The sixth pair of appendages were overlaid by a plate that is referred to as the metastoma, originally derived from a complete exoskeleton segment. The opisthosoma itself can be divided either into a " mesosoma " (comprising segments 1 to 6) and " metasoma " (comprising segments 7 to 12) or into a "preabdomen" (generally comprising segments 1 to 7) and "postabdomen" (generally comprising segments 8 to 12). The underside of
9919-441: The species Lanarkopterus dolichoschelus from the Ordovician of Ohio contain fragments of jawless fish and fragments of smaller specimens of Lanarkopterus itself. Though apex predatory roles would have been limited to the very largest eurypterids, smaller eurypterids were likely formidable predators in their own right just like their larger relatives. As in many other entirely extinct groups, understanding and researching
10028-427: The spongy structure of the eurypterid gill tracts. It is possible the two organs functioned in the same way. Some researchers have suggested that eurypterids may have been adapted to an amphibious lifestyle, using the full gill tract structure as gills and the invaginations within it as pseudotrachea. This mode of life may not have been physiologically possible, however, since water pressure would have forced water into
10137-498: The structure. Though the Kiemenplatte is referred to as a "gill tract", it may not necessarily have functioned as actual gills. In other animals, gills are used for oxygen uptake from water and are outgrowths of the body wall. Despite eurypterids clearly being primarily aquatic animals that almost certainly evolved underwater (some eurypterids, such as the pterygotids, would even have been physically unable to walk on land), it
10246-490: The superfamily that includes it, "Waeringopteroidea" (named after eurypterid researcher Erik N. Kjellesvig-Waering), are not formally published clades. The names derive from a 2004 thesis by O. Erik Tetlie and are as such not actually technically valid names. Nevertheless, as phylogenetic analyses confirms the grouping as monophyletic and the names supply an easy way to refer to the group, they remain routinely used within studies centered around eurypterid taxonomy. In these studies,
10355-468: The type A appendage is divided into three but the type B appendage into only two. Such division of the genital appendage is common in eurypterids, but the number is not universal; for instance, the appendages of both types in the family Pterygotidae are undivided. The type A appendage is also armed with two curved spines called furca (lit. 'fork' in Latin). The presence of furca in the type B appendage
10464-414: The type A appendage, could have been used to detect whether a substrate was suitable for spermatophore deposition. Until 1882 no eurypterids were known from before the Silurian. Contemporary discoveries since the 1880s have expanded the knowledge of early eurypterids from the Ordovician period. The earliest eurypterids known today, the megalograptid Pentecopterus , date from the Darriwilian stage of
10573-400: The underside and created a gill chamber where the "gill tracts" were located. Depending on the species, the eurypterid gill tract was either triangular or oval in shape and was possibly raised into a cushion-like state. The surface of this gill tract bore several spinules (small spines), which resulted in an enlarged surface area. It was composed of spongy tissue due to many invaginations in
10682-458: The waeringopterid eurypterids are joined by a handful of known features shared by all genera within the group. Like all other chelicerates , and other arthropods in general, waeringopterid eurypterids possessed segmented bodies and jointed appendages (limbs) covered in a cuticle composed of proteins and chitin . The chelicerate body is divided into two tagmata (sections); the frontal prosoma (head) and posterior opisthosoma (abdomen). In
10791-550: The waeringopterids, the fifth pair of appendages were spiniferous. The telson (the posteriormost segment of the body) was xiphous (long and pointed). The eyes of waeringopterid eurypterids were located close to the marginal rim of the carapace (the "head" plate). The waeringopterids were almost all small eurypterids. Waeringopterus cumberlandicus reached 15 cm (5.9 in) in length, while Grossopterus overathi reached 30 cm (12 in). Orcanopterus manitoulinensis reached 60 cm (24 in) in length. Though this
10900-429: The way different plates overlay at its location, the appendage would have been impossible to move without muscular contractions moving around the operculum. It would have been kept in place when not it use. The furca on the type A appendages may have aided in breaking open the spermatophore to release the free sperm inside for uptake. The "horn organs," possibly spermathecae, are thought to have been connected directly to
11009-430: Was a synonym of Parahughmilleria bellistriata and the more basal Stoermeropterus nodosus . Although subsequent authors have followed this study, the most accepted phylogenetic classification places Bassipterus together with Pittsfordipterus , forming a basal clade. Bassipterus is classified as part of the family Adelophthalmidae, the only clade ("group") within the superfamily Adelophthalmoidea . It
11118-401: Was a sharped spur. The mesosoma (comprising body segments 1 to 6) was tapered, with the first tergite (dorsal part of the segment) considerably narrower than the rest. The metasoma (comprising segments 7 to 12) followed the tapering of the mesosoma and ended in a long dirk-like telson (the posteriormost division of the body). The telson was smooth in the ventral part, but carinated (with
11227-400: Was also restricted to the continent Euramerica (composed of the equatorial continents Avalonia, Baltica and Laurentia), which had been completely colonized by the genus during its merging and was unable to cross the vast expanses of ocean separating this continent from other parts of the world, such as the southern supercontinent Gondwana. As such, Eurypterus was limited geographically to
11336-505: Was discovered in Carboniferous-aged fossil deposits of Scotland in 2005. It was attributed to the stylonurine eurypterid Hibbertopterus due to a matching size (the trackmaker was estimated to have been about 1.6 meters (5.2 ft) long) and inferred leg anatomy. It is the largest terrestrial trackway—measuring 6 meters (20 ft) long and averaging 95 centimeters (3.12 ft) in width—made by an arthropod found thus far. It
11445-513: Was long, reaching the second pair of abdominal plates, and was divided into three joints. The first had a short, triangular and hastate (with protruding lobes) portion followed by a tubular shaft that ended in two lateral triangular projections at the point of union with the following joint. The second joint was shorter and composed of three different areas. On both sides of the central shaft, two long narrow sclerites (hardened parts), possibly plates, lengthened themselves at their ends. The third joint
11554-452: Was more or less parallel and similar to that of extinct and extant xiphosurans, with the largest exception being that eurypterids hatched with a full set of appendages and opisthosomal segments. Eurypterids were thus not hemianamorphic direct developers, but true direct developers like modern arachnids. The most frequently observed change occurring through ontogeny (except for some genera, such as Eurypterus , which appear to have been static)
11663-429: Was originally described as a hughmilleriid, but since then it has been considered closer to Adelophthalmus than to Hughmilleria . Bassipterus and Pittsfordipterus form a basal ("primitive") group that differentiate them from the other adelophthalmids. This clade is backed by a pair of synapomorphies (shared characteristics different from that of their latest common ancestor ); relatively long and narrow eyes and
11772-518: Was used as an ovipositor (used to deposit eggs). The different types of genital appendages are not necessarily the only feature that distinguishes between the sexes of eurypterids. Depending on the genus and species in question, other features such as size, the amount of ornamentation and the proportional width of the body can be the result of sexual dimorphism. In general, eurypterids with type B appendages (males) appear to have been proportionally wider than eurypterids with type A appendages (females) of
11881-459: Was very short and finished in two long points reminiscent of Eurypterus , a more basal genus. The appendage in its entirety was covered by triangular mucrones which pointed outwards. The genital operculum differentiates Bassipterus from other eurypterid genera and suggests a close relationship with Pittsfordipterus . Bassipterus virginicus was described by the paleontologists Erik Norman Kjellesvig-Waering and Kenneth Edward Caster based on
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