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102-422: Westernization has been a growing influence across the world in the last few centuries, with some thinkers assuming Westernization to be the equivalent of modernization , a way of thought that is often debated. The overall process of Westernization is often two-sided in that Western influences and interests themselves are joined with parts of the affected society, at minimum, to become a more Westernized society, with

204-811: A "subject race" in order to more effectively dominate them. Said references Arthur Balfour , the British Prime Minister from 1902 to 1905, who regarded the rise of nationalism in Egypt in the late 19th century as counterproductive to a "benevolent" system of occupational rule. Balfour frames his argument in favor of continued rule over the Egyptian people by appealing to England's great "understanding" of Egypt's civilization and purporting that England's cultural strengths complemented and made them natural superiors to Egypt's racial deficiencies. Regarding this claim, Said says, "Knowledge to Balfour means surveying

306-435: A civilization from its origins to its prime to its decline – and of course, it means being able to...The object of such knowledge is inherently vulnerable to scrutiny; this object is a 'fact' which, if it develops, changes, or otherwise transforms itself...[the civilization] nevertheless is fundamentally, even ontologically stable. To have such knowledge of such a thing is to dominate it." The act of claiming coherent knowledge of

408-459: A construction in the similar way as does "the Orient" – it is a created notion to justify a particular set of power relations, in this case, the colonization and rule of a foreign country. From the 1400s onward, Europeanization and colonialism spread gradually over much of the world and controlled different regions during this five centuries long period, colonizing or subjecting the majority of

510-549: A country from the second to the third stage he expected that once it reached maturity, it would have a large energized middle class that would establish democracy and civil liberties and institutionalize human rights. The result was a comprehensive theory that could be used to challenge Marxist ideologies, and thereby repel communist advances. The model provided the foundation for the Alliance for Progress in Latin America,

612-506: A crucial part in globalization. Former U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson was a supporter of the modernization theory and believed that television had potential to provide educational tools in development. With the many apparent positive attributes to globalization there are also negative consequences. The dominant, neoliberal model of globalization often increases disparities between a society's rich and its poor. In major cities of developing countries there exist pockets where technologies of

714-424: A culture of strict social hierarchy and limited individualization. India's independence movement took inspiration from Western ideas about democracy and human rights. India's ruling class after independence in 1947 remained somewhat Westernized; India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru , had such a substantial Britishness that he once described himself as "the last Englishman to rule India." In 2014, however,

816-421: A cycle of Westernization. On top of largely Western government systems such as democracy and constitution , many Western technologies and customs like music, clothing, and cars have been introduced across various parts of the world and copied and created in traditionally non-Western countries. Westernization has been reversed in some countries following war or regime change. For example: Russia in aftermath of

918-658: A decrease in crime rates. For instance, ideas of Western secular education that emphasizes economy and society are taught in China while the pages of socialism ideas are reduced. According to Mahbubani, the Chinese government spends more money and effort on child education with a heavy bias towards science and technology. However a decade ago, previous education focused on Chinese dynasties and communist revolution rather than globalization. Adopting free-market economy not only gave China progression in economic activity as well as liberated

1020-434: A greater sense of self-dignity. Taking South Korea for example, people feel more liberated and full of hope for the future because they have numerous choices and several possibilities to choose from. Second, entering the modern universe inevitably leads to a greater adherence to the rule of law. Mahbubani argues this point by explaining that through increase of material wealth a greater presence of law will occur, thus creating

1122-1079: A liberal democracy" is the second flaw of the Western triumphalist thesis. The author points out that everywhere else apart from the East European countries, which shared common history and culture with Western Europe, democratization failed. He offers the example of the Balkans to argue that "without the right institutions and political culture, long-smoldering ethnic, religious, and nationalistic sentiments in many countries can be whipped up by opportunistic demagogues", leading to failure in transition to democracy. Although democratic elections were held in Croatia and Serbia, instead of liberal democrats, nationalist demagogues were elected. The leaders then appealed to visceral nationalist sentiments to retain their power, which led to war. Unprepared democratization can also lead to internal ethnic conflicts, as illustrated by

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1224-522: A link between economics and politics that is not conditional on institutions and culture and that presumes a definite endpoint—for example, an 'end of history'." March to Modernity The March to Modernity , coined by Kishore Mahbubani in his 2008 book, "The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to the East", refers to Asia's modernization using and adapting the seven pillars of Western ideology, causing Asia to rise and to become

1326-531: A link between economics and politics that is not conditional on institutions and culture and that presumes a definite endpoint—for example, an 'end of history'." Sirianne Dahlum and Carl Henrik Knutsen offer a test of the Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel revised version of modernization theory, which focuses on cultural traits triggered by economic development that are presummed to be conducive to democratization. They find "no empirical support" for

1428-436: A more Westernized one. By one definition, modern simply refers to the present, and any society still in existence is therefore modern. Proponents of modernization typically view only Western society as being truly modern and argue that others are primitive or unevolved by comparison. That view sees unmodernized societies as inferior even if they have the same standard of living as western societies. Opponents argue that modernity

1530-409: A more successful country. The Russian term was зáпадничество ( západnichestvo , "westernism"), and its adherents were known as the за́падники ( západniki , "westernists"). Westernization is often regarded as a part of the ongoing process of globalization . This theory proposes that Western thought has led to globalisation, and that globalisation propagates Western culture, leading to

1632-515: A new Sphere of Influence 2.0", published by Jura Gentium ( University of Florence ), the increasing role of Westernization is characterized by social media . The comparison with Eastern societies, who decided to ban American social media platforms (such as Iran and China with Facebook and Twitter), marks a political desire to avoid the Westernization process of their own populations and ways to communicate. Due to colonization and immigration,

1734-470: A pioneer of the globalization and modernization , has triggered Asian modernization. The desire of Asian states is simply to follow, not to dominate West, which refers to rather the triumph of the West. However, many Western leaders made remarks defining the coming world of rising Asia as dangerous or challenging. (President Bush in 2006, French minister of foreign affairs Barnier in 2005, etc.) This conception

1836-543: A positive effect on GDP per capita." Globalization can be defined as the integration of economic, political and social cultures. It is argued that globalization is related to the spreading of modernization across borders. Global trade has grown continuously since the European discovery of new continents in the early modern period ; it increased particularly as a result of the Industrial Revolution and

1938-502: A positive psychological boost. By gaining access to the modernization of the three basic human needs of shelter, water, and electricity, the poor of the Asian hemisphere will experience a boost in hope for a better life. Mahbubani uses the example of India's recent liberalization and shows that in the past decade poor, rural Indians feel more hopeful due to the increase in modernization. The satisfied people will also as stated by Mahbubani have

2040-520: A sense of ownership and certainty. Through democratization, empowered humans will become responsible in setting world history in a positive direction due to the belief that they have the ability to control their destiny. Lastly, Mahbubani explains that the March to Modernity will also lead to a more ethical universe. Larger shares of the population will be lifted out of absolute poverty, followed by social benefits such as improvements in health and education and

2142-529: A significant influence by the process of Westernization: Kishore Mahbubani 's book entitled The Great Convergence: Asia, the West, and the Logic of One World (Public Affairs), is very optimistic. It proposes that a new global civilization is being created. The majority of non-Western countries admire and adhere to Western living standards. It says this newly emerging global order has to be ruled through new policies and attitudes. He argues that policymakers all over

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2244-462: A society in effect objectifies and others it into marginalization, making people who are classified into that race as "almost everywhere nearly the same." Said also argues that this relationship to the "inferior" races, in fact, works to also fortify and make coherent what is meant by "the West"; if "The Oriental is irrational, depraved (fallen), childlike, "different..." then "...the European is rational, virtuous, mature, normal." Thus, "the West" acts as

2346-503: Is Ireland, where Irish is the first official language, followed by English as the second official language. The importance of sports partly comes from its connection to Westernization. The insight by Edelman, R., & Wilson, W. (2017) explains “This new system of thought and practices imbued with positive values in the exertion and strategic deployment of the human body, embracing the Anglo-American notion that physical activity

2448-406: Is a strong cross-country correlation between income and democracy, once one controls for country fixed effects and removes the association between income per capita and various measures of democracy, there is "no causal effect of income on democracy." In "Non-Modernization" (2022), they further argue that modernization theory cannot account for various paths of political development "because it posits

2550-418: Is academic debate over the drivers of democracy because there are theories that support economic growth as both a cause and effect of the institution of democracy. "Lipset's observation that democracy is related to economic development, first advanced in 1959, has generated the largest body of research on any topic in comparative politics," Anderson explains the idea of an elongated diamond in order to describe

2652-455: Is independent of culture and can be adapted to any society. Japan is cited as an example by both sides. Some see it as proof that a thoroughly modern way of life can exist in a non western society. Others argue that Japan has become distinctly more Western as a result of its modernization. As Tipps has argued, by conflating modernization with other processes, with which theorists use interchangeably (democratization, liberalization, development),

2754-444: Is out-dated. The Asian March to Modernity represents a new opportunity both for the West and for the world. Kishore Mahbubani's main argument and first scenario is when the March to Modernity succeeds, the world would become more peaceful, stable and prosperous. Mahbubani's first argument is that the March to Modernity will have a positive co-relational relationship in which modernization of material gains will cause Asia to experience

2856-455: Is seen as a form of globalization that leads the world to be similar to Western powers. Being globalized means taking positive aspects of the world, but globalization also brings the debate about being Westernized. Democracy, fast food, and American pop culture can all be examples that are considered as Westernization of the world. According to the "Theory of the Globe scrambled by Social network:

2958-766: Is subject of much debate among scholars. Critics have highlighted cases where industrialization did not prompt stable democratization , such as Japan, Germany, and the Soviet Union, as well as cases of democratic backsliding in economically advanced parts of Latin America. Other critics argue the causal relationship is reverse (democracy is more likely to lead to economic modernization) or that economic modernization helps democracies survive but does not prompt democratization. Other scholars provide supporting evidence, showing that economic development significantly predicts democratization. The modernization theory of

3060-546: The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) won power on the back of perceptions of the ruling class being insufficiently Indian . In Iran , the process of Westernization dates back to the country's attempt to westernize during the beginning of the 1930s, which was dictated by Shah Rezā Khan and continued by his son during the Cold War and agitated the largely conservative Shia Muslim masses of the country which

3162-528: The Bolshevik Revolution around 1917, Continental China by 1949, Cuba in aftermath of the Revolution in 1959 , and Iran by the 1979 revolution . The main characteristics are economic and political ( free trade ) democratisation, combined with the spread of an individualised culture . Often it was regarded as opposite to the worldwide influence of communism . After the break-up of

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3264-623: The Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church from each other. The definition of Western changed as the West was influenced by and spread to other nations. Islamic and Byzantine scholars added to the Western canon when their stores of Greek and Roman literature jump-started the Renaissance . The Cold War also reinterpreted the definition of the West by excluding the countries of the former Eastern Bloc . Today, most modern uses of

3366-604: The Industrial Revolution , the French Revolution and the Revolutions of 1848 and has long been regarded as reaching its most advanced stage in Europe. Anthropologists typically make their criticism one step further and say that the view is ethnocentric and is specific to Western culture . One alternative model is dependency theory . It emerged in the 1950s and argues that the underdevelopment of poor nations in

3468-613: The Peace Corps , Food for Peace , and the Agency for International Development (AID). Kennedy proclaimed the 1960s the "Development Decade" and substantially increased the budget for foreign assistance. Modernization theory supplied the design, rationale, and justification for these programs. The goals proved much too ambitious, and the economists in a few years abandoned the European-based modernization model as inappropriate to

3570-583: The USSR in late 1991 and the end of the Cold War , many of its component states and allies nevertheless underwent Westernization, including privatization of hitherto state-controlled industry. With debates still going on, the question of whether globalization can be characterized as Westernization can be seen in various aspects. Globalization is happening in various aspects, ranging from economics, politics, and even food or culture. Westernization, to some schools,

3672-513: The " Third World ", as it was called at the time. They promoted modernization models in order to reorient American aid to Asia, Africa and Latin America. In the Rostow version in his The Stages of Economic Growth (1960) progress must pass through five stages, and for underdeveloped world the critical stages were the second one, the transition, the third stage, the takeoff into self-sustaining growth. Rostow argued that American intervention could propel

3774-799: The 1950s and 1960s drew on classical evolutionary theory and a Parsonian reading of Weber's ideas about a transition from traditional to modern society. Parsons had translated Weber's works into English in the 1930s and provided his own interpretation. After 1945 the Parsonian version became widely used in sociology and other social sciences. Some of the thinkers associated with modernization theory are Marion J. Levy Jr. , Gabriel Almond , Seymour Martin Lipset , Walt Rostow , Daniel Lerner, Lucian Pye , David Apter , Alex Inkeles , Cyril Edwin Black , Bert F. Hoselitz , Myron Weiner , and Karl Deutsch . By

3876-415: The 1950s and 1960s, most influentially articulated by Seymour Lipset , drew on sociological analyses of Karl Marx , Emile Durkheim , Max Weber , and Talcott Parsons . Modernization theory was a dominant paradigm in the social sciences in the 1950s and 1960s, and saw a resurgence after 1991, when Francis Fukuyama wrote about the end of the Cold War as confirmation on modernization theory. The theory

3978-508: The 1960s and 1970s that authoritarian regimes yielded greater economic growth than democracies. However, this view had been challenged. In Democracy and Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950–1990 (2000), Adam Przeworski argued that "democracies perform as well economically as do authoritarian regimes." A study by Daron Acemoglu , Suresh Naidu , Pascual Restrepo, and James A. Robinson shows that "democracy has

4080-582: The 1960s version of modernization theory in significant ways. Counter to Lipset, who associated industrial growth with democratization, Inglehart and Welzel did not see an association between industrialization and democratization. Rather, they held that only at a latter stage in the process of economic modernization, which various authors have characterized as post-industrial , did values conducive to democratization – which Inglehart and Welzel call "self-expression values" – emerge. Nonetheless, these efforts to revive modernization theory were criticized by many (see

4182-460: The 1960s, some critics argued that the link between modernization and democracy was based too much on the example of European history and neglected the Third World . One historical problem with that argument has always been Germany whose economic modernization in the 19th century came long before the democratization after 1918 . Berman , however, concludes that a process of democratization

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4284-739: The Americas and Oceania by Europeans , the cultural, ethnic, and linguistic make-up of the Americas and Oceania has been changed. This is most visible in settler colonies such as: Australia , Canada , New Zealand in Oceania, and the United States , Argentina , Brazil , Chile , Costa Rica , and Uruguay in the Americas, where the traditional indigenous population has been predominantly replaced demographically by non-indigenous settlers due to transmitted disease and conflict. This demographic takeover in settler countries has often resulted in

4386-613: The Ancient Greek society. The Romans emerged with a culture that grew into a new Western identity based on the Greco-Roman society. Westernization can also be compared to acculturation and enculturation . Acculturation is "the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between cultural groups and their individual members". After contact, changes in cultural patterns are evident within one or both cultures. Specific to Westernization and

4488-402: The East . March to Modernity indicates the first and most likely of the three possible scenarios of Asia's modernization in the globalization era. Mahbubani discusses how the rise of Asia will alter the world between the East and the West in the next fifty years. He argues that the modernizing Asia will be good for the whole world in ethical as well as political terms. The West (primarily America),

4590-399: The East . This time, he argues that Western influence is now "unraveling", with Eastern powers such as China arising. He states: …the 5.6 billion people who live outside the West no longer believe in the innate or inherent superiority of Western civilization. Instead, many are beginning to question whether the West remains the most civilized part of the world. What we are witnessing today…is

4692-573: The Empire. As a result, Turkey is one of the most Westernized majority-Muslim nations. Westernizers ( / ˈ z ɑː p ɑː d n ɪ k / ; Russian : за́падник , romanized :  západnik , IPA: [ˈzapədnʲɪk] ) were a group of 19th-century intellectuals who believed that Russia 's development depended upon the adoption of Western European technology and liberal government. In their view, Western ideas such as industrialisation needed to be implemented throughout Russia to make it

4794-542: The European Union's protectionist policies has not hindered the overall growth of the global economy, according to David Hale , a Wall Street journalist,“the greatest threat to this [global] boom is that the United States will lose confidence in the free market ideology". Protectionism is also happening in the investment sector of global politics. The United States has backed out of foreign investment due to

4896-614: The Inglehart and Welzel thesis and conclude that "self-expression values do not enhance democracy levels or democratization chances, and neither do they stabilize existing democracies." A meta-analysis by Gerardo L. Munck of research on Lipset's argument shows that a majority of studies do not support the thesis that higher levels of economic development leads to more democracy. Modernization theorists often saw traditions as obstacles to economic development . According to Seymour Martin Lipset, economic conditions are heavily determined by

4998-520: The March to Modernity creates a more secure world due to adherence to rules and order. Examples of Economic Prosperity in Asia • Modernization of China and India has succeeded in reducing the number of people in absolute poverty. • Spread of Cell phone users in India has changed Indian mindset on modern instruments. This “mobile miracle” empowered the less fortunate to fight poverty and to be connected to

5100-487: The Third World derived from systematic imperial and neo-colonial exploitation of raw materials. Its proponents argue that resources typically flow from a "periphery" of poor and underdeveloped states to a "core" of wealthy states , enriching the latter at the expense of the former. It is a central contention of dependency theorists such as Andre Gunder Frank that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by

5202-454: The West to shape and move the world history. Huntington believed that while the age of ideology had ended, the world had only reverted to a normal state of affairs characterized by cultural conflict. In his thesis, he argued that the primary axis of conflict in the future will be along cultural and religious lines. In Orientalism Edward Said views Westernization as it occurred in the process of colonization , an exercise of essentializing

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5304-786: The West. The author asserts that there is nothing superior about the Western values, rather, other dormant cultures simply underwent revival of cultural confidence and dynamism when the West was experiencing one of its most triumphant moments. Based on the flaws, Kishore Mahbubani argues that this scenario is least likely to happen in the future. In his book, The New Asian Hemisphere , Kishore Mahbubani explains seven pillars of Western wisdom that have contributed to Asia's march to modernity: Kishore Mahbubani suggests two significant cases of Asia's modernity; China and India. According to 'The China Modernization Report', China measures its modernization level with two assessment criteria; first stage, "industrialization and urbanization" and second stage,

5406-551: The book, Democracy in Developing Countries: Latin America , argue that economic performance affects the development of democracy in at least three ways. First, they argue that economic growth is more important for democracy than given levels of socioeconomic development. Second, socioeconomic development generates social changes that can potentially facilitate democratization. Third, socioeconomic development promotes other changes, like organization of

5508-542: The concentration of power in the hands of a few at the top during an authoritarian leadership. He develops this by giving an understanding of the shift in power from the elite class to the middle class that occurs when modernization is incorporated. Socioeconomic modernization allows for a democracy to further develop and influences the success of a democracy. Concluded from this, is the idea that as socioeconomic levels are leveled, democracy levels would further increase. Larry Diamond and Juan Linz , who worked with Lipset in

5610-460: The concern of national security issues. Paul Krugman , one of America's leading economist acknowledges that free trade is not universally beneficial in that there will be some winners and some losers. However the World Bank , states that countries that engaged in free trade will actually see a rise in their economies as well due to the laws of comparative advantage. The Triumph of the West is

5712-409: The country by law. This led to a legal awakening for citizens as they were becoming more educated on the law, yet more understanding of their inequality in relation to the government. Looking down the line in the 2000s, Chinese citizens saw even more opportunities to liberalize and were able to be a part of urbanization and could access higher levels of education. This in turn resulted in the attitudes of

5814-503: The cultural, social values present in that given society. Furthermore, while modernization might deliver violent, radical change for traditional societies , it was thought worth the price. Critics insist that traditional societies were often destroyed without ever gaining the promised advantages. Others point to improvements in living standards, physical infrastructure, education and economic opportunity to refute such criticisms. Modernization theorists such as Samuel P. Huntington held in

5916-406: The cultures they were trying to impact. Kennedy and his top advisers were working from implicit ideological assumptions regarding modernization. They firmly believed modernity was not only good for the target populations, but was essential to avoid communism on the one hand or extreme control of traditional rural society by the very rich landowners on the other. They believed America had a duty, as

6018-476: The degree of adaption and fusion with Western customs will occur at varying magnitudes within different communities . Specifically, the extent to which domination, destruction, resistance, survival, adaptation, or modification affect a native culture may differ following inter-ethnic contact. The West was originally defined as the Western world . A thousand years later, the East-West Schism separated

6120-631: The ethnic cleansing of Croats in parts of the former Yugoslavia, the attacks on the Chinese minority in Indonesia, and the Tutsi slaughter in Rwanda. Lastly, disregarding cultural differences by believing that the model of Western liberal democratic society is universally applicable to all societies is another flaw in the triumphant post-Cold War thesis. Mahbubani claims that cultures are different and failing to see this shows generosity but also arrogance of

6222-499: The final form of human government". Mahbubani contends that three fundamental flaws exists in this scenario. The first flaw is the belief that the West had triumphed over the Soviet Union because of its values and political system. Mahbubani illustrates it was the economic system that led to Western triumph, and the success of China and the failure of Soviet Union reveal the flaw of the argument. Deng Xiaoping focused on introducing free-market economics to China by correctly understanding

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6324-543: The formerly prevalent languages in the Americas, Oceania, and part of South Africa , are now usually Indo-European languages or creoles based on them: Many indigenous languages are on the verge of becoming extinct. Some settler countries have preserved indigenous languages; for example, in New Zealand, the Māori language is one of three official languages, the others being English and New Zealand sign language, another example

6426-417: The global economy. Cell phones are now connecting the World's poor to the global economy, which leads to higher productivity. Examples of Political Stability in Asia • China has actively responded to the call of the World Bank to become a "responsible stakeholder" in the international order (Sept. 2005). • Most Asian countries want to take responsible parts in the open multilateral international order. In

6528-399: The globe. Following World War II , Western leaders and academics sought to expand innate liberties and international equality. A period of decolonization began. At the end of the 1960s, most colonies were allowed autonomy. Those new states often adopted some aspects of Western politics such as a constitution, while frequently reacting against Western culture. Due to the colonization of

6630-443: The ideology was a non-coercive version of the modernization goals of the imperialistic of Britain, France and other European countries in the 19th century. From the 1970s, modernization theory has been criticized by numerous scholars, including Andre Gunder Frank (1929–2005) and Immanuel Wallerstein (1930–2019). In this model, the modernization of a society required the destruction of the indigenous culture and its replacement by

6732-618: The introduction of over 1,300 locations of the traditionally Western fast-food chain McDonald's into China. Specific to Taiwan , the industry of bridal photography (see Photography in Taiwan ) has been significantly influenced by the Western idea of "love". As examined by author Bonnie Adrian, Taiwanese bridal photos of today provide a striking contrast to past accepted norms, contemporary couples often displaying great physical affection and, at times, placed in typically Western settings to augment

6834-448: The last scenario presented by Mahbubani. The West, having positioned itself as a superpower after the Cold War, Westernization will increase thus causing all other nations to adopt Western values and become "cultural clones of the West". This argument was elaborated by Francis Fukuyama in his book " The End of History " arguing for the "end point of mankind's ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as

6936-591: The late 1960s opposition to modernization theory developed because the theory was too general and did not fit all societies in quite the same way. Yet, with the end of the Cold War, a few attempts to revive modernization theory were carried out. Francis Fukuyama argued for the use of modernization theory as universal history . A more academic effort to revise modernization theory was that of Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel in Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy (2005). Inglehart and Welzel amended

7038-409: The liberalization of the middle and lower classes. However, active human rights abuses and constant oppression of Chinese citizens by the government seem to contradict the theory strongly. Interestingly enough, the irony is that increasing restrictions on Chinese citizens are a result of modernization theory. In the 1990s, the Chinese government wanted to reform the legal system and emphasized governing

7140-626: The linguistic, social, and cultural marginalisation of indigenous people. Even in countries where large populations of indigenous people remain or the indigenous peoples have mixed ( mestizo ) considerably with European settlers, such as countries in Latin America and the Caribbean: Mexico , Peru , Panama , Suriname , Ecuador , Bolivia , Venezuela , Belize , Paraguay , South Africa , Colombia , Guatemala , Haiti , Honduras , Guyana , El Salvador , Jamaica , Cuba , or Nicaragua , relative marginalisation still exists. Latin America

7242-476: The lower and middle classes changing to more liberal ideas, which went against the CCP. Over time, this has led to their active participation in civil society activities and similar adjacent political groups in order to make their voices heard. Consequently, the Chinese government represses Chinese citizens at a more aggressive rate, all due to modernization theory. Ronald Inglehart and Christian Welzel contend that

7344-482: The majority- Western Christian part of Europe and North America the West, and creating 6 other civilizations, including Latin America , Confucian , Japanese, Islamic , Hindu and Slavic-Orthodox , to organize the rest of the globe. Huntington argued that after the end of the Cold War , world politics had been moved into a new aspect in which non-Western civilizations were no more the exploited recipients of Western civilization but become another important actor joining

7446-442: The mid-20th century adoption of the shipping container . Annual trans-border tourist arrivals rose to 456 million by 1990 and almost tripled since, reaching a total of over 1.2 billion in 2016. Communication is another major area that has grown due to modernization. Communication industries have enabled capitalism to spread throughout the world. Telephony, television broadcasts, news services and online service providers have played

7548-618: The middle class, which is conducive to democracy. As Seymour Martin Lipset put it, "All the various aspects of economic development—industrialization, urbanization, wealth and education—are so closely interrelated as to form one major factor which has the political correlate of democracy". The argument also appears in Walt W. Rostow , Politics and the Stages of Growth (1971); A. F. K. Organski, The Stages of Political Development (1965); and David Apter , The Politics of Modernization (1965). In

7650-447: The minds of Chinese people. Mahbubani believes that the success of North America and the European Union was caused by the middle class who are reluctant to sacrifice their comfortable life due to warfare. When disputes between individuals and societies emerge, they would be settled on the basis of agreed rules and procedures, not by warfare. According to Larry Summers , “there can be no personal freedom without personal security”. Therefore,

7752-519: The modernised world, computers , cell phones and satellite television, exist alongside stark poverty. Globalists are globalization modernization theorists and argue that globalization is positive for everyone, as its benefits must eventually extend to all members of society, including vulnerable groups such as women and children. President John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) relied on economists W.W. Rostow on his staff and outsider John Kenneth Galbraith for ideas on how to promote rapid economic development in

7854-416: The modernity, in comparison to the historically prominent relationship, often stoic and distant, exhibited between bride and groom. Though Western concepts may have initially played a role in creating this cultural shift in Taiwan, the market and desire for bridal photography has not continued without adjustments and social modifications to this Western notion. In Korea , the first contact with Westernization

7956-441: The modernization hypothesis using new data, new techniques, and a three-way, rather than dichotomous, classification of regimes. Contrary to Przeworski, this study finds that the modernization hypothesis stands up well. Partial democracies emerge as among the most important and least understood regime types. Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2008) further weaken the case for Lipset's argument by showing that even though there

8058-640: The most modern country in the world, to promulgate this ideal to the poor nations of the Third World. They wanted programs that were altruistic, and benevolent—and also tough, energetic, and determined. It was benevolence with a foreign policy purpose. Michael Latham has identified how this ideology worked out in three major programs the Alliance for Progress, the Peace Corps, and the strategic hamlet program in South Vietnam. However, Latham argues that

8160-488: The new global power. Asia's modernity was first achieved by Japan and India. Japan's success was emulated by the four economic tigers: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. China followed soon after by launching its " Four Modernizations " program. China's success of the past three decades in turn inspired the rise of India. Asians are marching to modernity. Kishore Mahbubani used the term in his book, The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to

8262-445: The non-Western culture, foreign societies tend to adopt changes in their social systems relative to Western ideology, lifestyle, and physical appearance, along with numerous other aspects, and shifts in culture patterns can be seen to take root as a community becomes acculturated to Western customs and characteristics – in other words, Westernized. The phenomenon of Westernization does not follow any one specific pattern across societies as

8364-478: The past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of poverty is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and structures of their own; and, importantly, are in

8466-583: The point of hiring Westerners to teach Western customs and traditions to the Japanese starting in the Meiji era . Since then, many Japanese politicians have encouraged the Westernization of Japan with the use of the term Datsu-A Ron , which means the argument for "leaving Asia" or "Good-bye Asia". In Datsu-A Ron , "Westernization" was described as an "unavoidable" but "fruitful" change. In contrast, despite many advances in industrial efficiency, Japan has sustained

8568-532: The progressive unwrapping of these many layers of Western influences. He explains the decline of Western influence, stating reasons as to the loss of Western credibility with the rest of the world. In contrast to territorial delineation, others, like the American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington in The Clash of Civilizations , consider what is "Western" based on religious affiliation, such as deeming

8670-466: The putative goal of attaining a Western life or some aspects of it, while Western societies are themselves affected by this process and interaction with non-Western groups. Westernization traces its roots back to Ancient Greece . Later, the Roman Empire took on the first process of Westernization as it was heavily influenced by Greece and created a new culture based on the principles and values of

8772-421: The realization of democracy is not based solely on an expressed desire for that form of government, but democracies are born as a result of the admixture of certain social and cultural factors. They argue the ideal social and cultural conditions for the foundation of a democracy are born of significant modernization and economic development that result in mass political participation. Randall Peerenboom explores

8874-843: The relationships among democracy, the rule of law and their relationship to wealth by pointing to examples of Asian countries, such as Taiwan and South Korea, which have successfully democratized only after economic growth reached relatively high levels and to examples of countries such as the Philippines , Bangladesh , Cambodia , Thailand , Indonesia and India , which sought to democratize at lower levels of wealth but have not done as well. Adam Przeworski and others have challenged Lipset's argument. They say political regimes do not transition to democracy as per capita incomes rise. Rather, democratic transitions occur randomly, but once there, countries with higher levels of gross domestic product per capita remain democratic. Epstein et al. (2006) retest

8976-454: The second scenario, Mahbubani believes that the Western hemisphere, will become threatened by Asia's success. Thus, the West will engaged in rigid protectionism to halt Asia's rising status. However, Mahbubani explains that Europe has engaged in protectionist techniques since the end of the Cold War. These strategies includes massive subsidies to the wealthy few in Europe and using tax payers’ dollars on unnecessary language translations. Although

9078-417: The section on "Criticisms and alternatives" below), and the theory remained a controversial one. The relationship between modernization and democracy or democratization is one of the most researched studies in comparative politics . Many studies show that modernization has contributed to democracy in some countries. For example, Seymour Martin Lipset argued that modernization can turn into democracy. There

9180-400: The situation of being the weaker members in a world market economy . Another line of critique of modernization theory was due to sociologist Barrington Moore Jr. , in his Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy (1966). In this classic book, Moore argues there were at least "three routes to the modern world" - the liberal democratic, the fascist, and the communist - each deriving from

9282-410: The source of Western strength, while Gorbachev focused on glasnost (political openness) over perestroika (economic restructuring). In other words, Gorbachev's failure to realize the power of Western economic system led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The belief that "any society anywhere in the world at any state of social and economic development could be immediately transformed overnight into

9384-448: The term becomes imprecise and therefore difficult to disprove. The theory has also been criticised empirically, as modernization theorists ignore external sources of change in societies. The binary between traditional and modern is unhelpful, as the two are linked and often interdependent, and "modernization" does not come as a whole. Modernization theory has also been accused of being Eurocentric , as modernization began in Europe, with

9486-518: The term refer to the societies in the West and their close genealogical , linguistic , and philosophical descendants. Typically included are those countries whose ethnic identity and dominant culture are derived from Western European culture . Though it shares a similar historical background, the Western world is not a monolithic bloc, as many cultural, linguistic, religious, political, and economic differences exist between Western countries and populations. The following countries or regions experienced

9588-753: The timing of industrialization and the social structure at the time of transition. Counter to modernization theory, Moore held that there was not one path to the modern world and that economic development did not always bring about democracy. Political scientist Guillermo O'Donnell , in his Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism (1973) challenged the thesis, advanced most notably by Seymour Martin Lipset, that industrialization produced democracy. In South America, O'Donnell argued, industrialization generated not democracy, but bureaucratic authoritarianism. Economists Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson (2022), argue that modernization theory cannot account for various paths of political development "because it posits

9690-445: The way poor states are integrated into the " world system ". Dependency models arose from a growing association of southern hemisphere nationalists (from Latin America and Africa) and Marxists. It was their reaction against modernization theory, which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in

9792-624: The world must change their preconceptions and accept that we live in one world. The national interests must be balanced with global interests and the power must be shared. Mahbubani urges that only through these actions can we create a world that converges benignly. Samuel P. Huntington posits a conflict between "the West and the Rest" and offers three forms of general action that non-Western civilizations can react toward Western countries. Mahbubani counters this argument in his other book, The New Asian Hemisphere: The Irresistible Shift of Global Power to

9894-638: Was being Westernized slowly in the late 19th century, Korea had the idea of "Eastern ways and Western frames (東道西器)", meaning that they accepted the Western "bowl", but used it with Eastern principles inside. In Japan , the Netherlands continued to play a key role in transmitting Western know-how to the Japanese from the 17th century to the mid-19th century, because the Japanese had only opened their doors to Dutch merchants before US Navy Commodore Matthew Perry 's visit in 1853 . After Commodore Perry's visit, Japan began to deliberately accept Western culture to

9996-523: Was during the Joseon Dynasty , in the 17th century. Every year, the emperor dispatched a few envoy ambassadors to China and while they were staying in Beijing, the Western missionaries were there. Through the missionaries, Korean ambassadors were able to adopt Western technology. In the 19th century, Korea started to send ambassadors to the foreign countries, other than Japan and China . While Korea

10098-736: Was meaningful in and of itself, conducive to values such as learning and character-building. Modern athletics and competitive sports, avatars of this new body culture, elicited largely willing local receptions in North Asia, though there were no doubt isolated cases of coercive foisting better characterized as cultural imperialism.” Modernization theory Modernization theory or modernisation theory ( Commonwealth English ; see spelling differences ) holds that as societies become more economically modernized, wealthier and more educated, their political institutions become increasingly liberal democratic . The "classical" theories of modernization of

10200-555: Was partly responsible for the 1979 Iranian Revolution . In Turkey , the synchronization process with the West is known as the Tanzimat (reorganization) period. The Ottoman Empire began to change itself according to modern science, practice, and culture. The Empire took some innovations from the West. Also, with the contribution of foreign engineers, the Empire repaired its old arm systems. Newly-found schools, permanent ambassadors, and privy councils were an essential improvement for

10302-554: Was shaped by Iberian culture, with local religious forms also mixing with Christian influences. In Mexico, indigenous people adopted writing alongside their traditional oral and pictorial forms of communication. General reactions to Westernization can include fundamentalism , protectionism , or embrace to varying degrees. Countries such as Korea and China attempted to adopt a system of isolationism but have ultimately juxtaposed parts of Western culture into their own, often adding original and unique social influences, as exemplified by

10404-617: Was underway in Imperial Germany, for "during these years Germans developed many of the habits and mores that are now thought by political scientists to augur healthy political development". One contemporary problem for modernization theory is the argument of whether modernization implies more human rights for citizens or not. China, one of the most rapidly growing economies in the world, can be observed as an example. The modernization theory implies that this should correlate to democratic growth in some regards, especially in relation to

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