107-411: Wife-beater , wifebeater , or wife beater is a slang term for a person who commits domestic violence against his or her wife , or long term female partner. It can also refer to: Nicknames Media products Domestic violence Domestic violence is violence or other abuse that occurs in a domestic setting, such as in a marriage or cohabitation . Domestic violence is often used as
214-479: A causal relationship, a number of longitudinal studies suggest that the experience of physical punishment does have a direct causal effect on later aggressive behaviors. Such research has shown that corporal punishment of children (e.g. smacking, slapping, or spanking) predicts weaker internalisation of values such as empathy, altruism, and resistance to temptation, along with more antisocial behavior , including dating violence. In some patrilineal societies around
321-412: A norepinephrine /cortisol ratio consequently higher than comparable non-diagnosed individuals. This is in contrast to the normative fight-or-flight response , in which both catecholamine and cortisol levels are elevated after exposure to a stressor. Brain catecholamine levels are high, and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) concentrations are high. Together, these findings suggest abnormality in
428-450: A bride may be subjected to extreme violence, including an honor killing, if she is deemed not to be a virgin on her wedding night due to the absence of blood. Bride burning or dowry killing is a form of domestic violence in which a newly married woman is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to their dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged dowry after
535-547: A call for the end of legal impunity for domestic violence, an impunity often based on the idea that such acts are private. The Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence , better known as the Istanbul Convention, is the first legally binding instrument in Europe dealing with domestic violence and violence against women. The convention seeks to put an end to
642-636: A child with chronic illnesses. Research exists which demonstrates that survivors of psychotic episodes , which exist in diseases such as schizophrenia , schizoaffective disorder , bipolar I disorder , and others, are at greater risk for PTSD due to the experiences one may have during and after psychosis. Such traumatic experiences include, but are not limited to, the treatment patients experience in psychiatric hospitals , police interactions due to psychotic behavior, suicidal behavior and attempts, social stigma and embarrassment due to behavior while in psychosis, frequent terrifying experiences due to psychosis, and
749-600: A controlling behavior designed to make a person dependent by isolating them from support, exploiting them of independence and regulating their everyday activities. It involves the acts of verbal assault , punish, humiliation, threats or intimidation. Coercive control can occur physically, for example through physical abuse, harming or frightening the victims. The victim's human rights might be infringed through being deprived of their right to liberty and reduced ability to act freely. Abusers tend to dehumanize , make threats, deprive basic needs and personal access, isolate, and track
856-557: A cycle of violence in which the formerly abused bride becomes the abusing mother-in-law to her new daughter-in-law". Amnesty International writes that, in Tajikistan, "it is almost an initiation ritual for the mother-in-law to put her daughter-in-law through the same torments she went through herself as a young wife." These factors include genetics and brain dysfunction and are studied by neuroscience . Psychological theories focus on personality traits and mental characteristics of
963-537: A loved one accounts for approximately 20% of PTSD cases worldwide. Medical conditions associated with an increased risk of PTSD include cancer, heart attack, and stroke. 22% of cancer survivors present with lifelong PTSD like symptoms. Intensive-care unit (ICU) hospitalization is also a risk factor for PTSD. Some women experience PTSD from their experiences related to breast cancer and mastectomy . Loved ones of those who experience life-threatening illnesses are also at risk for developing PTSD, such as parents of
1070-495: A loved one is the most common traumatic event type reported in cross-national studies. However, the majority of people who experience this type of event will not develop PTSD. An analysis from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys found a 5.2% risk of developing PTSD after learning of the unexpected death of a loved one. Because of the high prevalence of this type of traumatic event, unexpected death of
1177-490: A maladaptive learning pathway to fear response through a hypersensitive, hyperreactive, and hyperresponsive HPA axis. Low cortisol levels may predispose individuals to PTSD: Following war trauma, Swedish soldiers serving in Bosnia and Herzegovina with low pre-service salivary cortisol levels had a higher risk of reacting with PTSD symptoms, following war trauma, than soldiers with normal pre-service levels. Because cortisol
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#17327986945691284-470: A marker of microglial activation ( 18-kDa translocator protein ) following lipopolysaccharide administration. This neuroimmune suppression is also associated with greater severity of anhedonic symptoms. Researchers suggest that treatments aimed at restoring neuroimmune function could be beneficial for alleviating PTSD symptoms. A meta-analysis of structural MRI studies found an association with reduced total brain volume, intracranial volume, and volumes of
1391-463: A non-life-threatening traffic accident, and a similar proportion of children develop PTSD. Risk of PTSD almost doubles to 4.6% for life-threatening auto accidents. Females were more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD following a road traffic accident , whether the accident occurred during childhood or adulthood. Post-traumatic stress reactions have been studied in children and adolescents. The rate of PTSD might be lower in children than adults, but in
1498-404: A person's sexuality using coercion . It also includes obligatory inspections for virginity and female genital mutilation. Aside from initiation of the sexual act through physical force, sexual abuse occurs if a person is verbally pressured into consenting, unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, unable to decline participation, or unable to communicate unwillingness to engage in
1605-497: A proposed law that would criminalize marital rape, Sheik Ahmad Al-Kurdi, a judge in the Sunni religious court, said that the law "could lead to the imprisonment of the man where in reality he is exercising the least of his marital rights." Feminists have worked systematically since the 1960s to criminalize marital rape internationally. In 2006, a study by the UN found that marital rape was
1712-423: A prosecutable offense in at least 104 countries. Once widely condoned or ignored by law and society, marital rape is now repudiated by international conventions and increasingly criminalized. The countries which ratified the Istanbul Convention, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women, are bound by its provisions to ensure that non-consensual sexual acts committed against
1819-595: A relationship is to establish and maintain relationships based on power and control over victims. Batterers morality is out of step with the law and society's standards. Research shows the key issue for perpetrators of abuse is their conscious and deliberate decision to offend in the pursuit of self-gratification. Men who perpetrate violence have specific characteristics: they are narcissistic, they willfully lack empathy, and they choose to treat their needs as more important than others. Perpetrators psychologically manipulate their victim to believe their abuse and violence
1926-506: A relationship. The most prominent example is rape within marriage, which for a long time had not been recognised as rape because of the relationship between victim and perpetrator." There has been increased attention given to specific forms of domestic violence, such as honor killings, dowry deaths, and forced marriages. India has, in recent decades, made efforts to curtail dowry violence: the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act
2033-554: A result of abuse, victims may experience physical disabilities, dysregulated aggression, chronic health problems, mental illness, limited finances, and a poor ability to create healthy relationships. Victims may experience severe psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Children who live in a household with violence often show psychological problems from an early age, such as avoidance, hypervigilance to threats and dysregulated aggression, which may contribute to vicarious traumatization. The first known use of
2140-704: A result of domestic violence makes up a greater proportion of female homicides than it does male homicides. More than 50% of female homicides are committed by former or current intimate partners in the US. In the UK, 37% of murdered women were killed by an intimate partner compared to 6% for men. Between 40 and 70 percent of women murdered in Canada, Australia, South Africa, Israel and the US were killed by an intimate partner. The WHO states that globally, about 38% of female homicides are committed by an intimate partner. During pregnancy ,
2247-509: A similar dynamic [to honor killings] in that the women are killed by male family members and the crimes are perceived as excusable or understandable". Historically, children had few protections from violence by their parents, and in many parts of the world, this is still the case. For example, in Ancient Rome, a father could legally kill his children. Many cultures have allowed fathers to sell their children into slavery . Child sacrifice
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#17327986945692354-430: A smaller hippocampus might be more likely to develop PTSD following a traumatic event based on preliminary findings. Research has also found that PTSD shares many genetic influences common to other psychiatric disorders. Panic and generalized anxiety disorders and PTSD share 60% of the same genetic variance. Alcohol, nicotine, and drug dependence share greater than 40% genetic similarities. PTSD symptoms may result when
2461-428: A spouse from resource acquisition, limiting what the victim may use, or by otherwise exploiting economic resources of the victim. Economic abuse diminishes the victim's capacity to support themselves, increasing dependence on the perpetrator, including reduced access to education, employment, career advancement, and asset acquisition. Forcing or pressuring a family member to sign documents, to sell things, or to change
2568-664: A spouse or partner are illegal. The convention came into force in August 2014. Emotional or psychological abuse is a pattern of behavior that threatens, intimidates, dehumanizes or systematically undermines self-worth. According to the Istanbul Convention, psychological violence is "the intentional conduct of seriously impairing a person's psychological integrity through coercion or threats". Emotional abuse includes minimizing, threats, isolation, public humiliation , unrelenting criticism, constant personal devaluation, coercive control, repeated stonewalling and gaslighting . Stalking
2675-726: A synonym for intimate partner violence , which is committed by one of the people in an intimate relationship against the other person, and can take place in relationships or between former spouses or partners. In its broadest sense, domestic violence also involves violence against children, parents, or the elderly. It can assume multiple forms, including physical , verbal , emotional , economic , religious , reproductive , financial abuse, or sexual abuse , or combinations of these. It can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and other violent physical abuse, such as choking, beating, female genital mutilation , and acid throwing that may result in disfigurement or death, and includes
2782-401: A traumatic event causes an over-reactive adrenaline response, which creates deep neurological patterns in the brain. These patterns can persist long after the event that triggered the fear, making an individual hyper-responsive to future fearful situations. During traumatic experiences, the high levels of stress hormones secreted suppress hypothalamic activity that may be a major factor toward
2889-444: A traumatic event in adulthood. It has been difficult to find consistently aspects of the events that predict, but peritraumatic dissociation has been a fairly consistent predictive indicator of the development of PTSD. Proximity to, duration of, and severity of the trauma make an impact. It has been speculated that interpersonal traumas cause more problems than impersonal ones, but this is controversial. The risk of developing PTSD
2996-747: A two-fold increased risk of death, with the leading causes of death being ischemic heart disease or cancers of the respiratory tract including lung cancer . Persons considered at risk for developing PTSD include combat military personnel, survivors of natural disasters, concentration camp survivors, and survivors of violent crime. Persons employed in occupations that expose them to violence (such as soldiers) or disasters (such as emergency service workers) are also at risk. Other occupations at an increased risk include police officers, firefighters, ambulance personnel, health care professionals, train drivers, divers, journalists, and sailors, as well as people who work at banks, post offices or in stores. The intensity of
3103-597: A wide range of traumatic events. The risk of developing PTSD after a traumatic event varies by trauma type and is the highest following exposure to sexual violence (11.4%), particularly rape (19.0%). Men are more likely to experience a traumatic event (of any type), but women are more likely to experience the kind of high-impact traumatic event that can lead to PTSD, such as interpersonal violence and sexual assault . Motor vehicle collision survivors, both children and adults, are at an increased risk of PTSD. Globally, about 2.6% of adults are diagnosed with PTSD following
3210-432: A wife or, if they do not do so now, have done so within the last 100 years. Again, most legal systems fail to criminalize circumstances where a wife is forced to have sexual relations with her husband against her will. ... Indeed, in the case of violence against wives, there is a widespread belief that women provoke, can tolerate or even enjoy a certain level of violence from their spouses." In recent decades, there has been
3317-696: A will are forms of economic abuse. A victim may be put on an allowance, allowing close monitoring of how much money is spent, preventing spending without the perpetrator's consent, leading to the accumulation of debt or depletion of the victim's savings. Disagreements about money spent can result in retaliation with additional physical, sexual or emotional abuse. In parts of the world where women depend on husbands' income in order to survive (due to lack of opportunities for female employment and lack of state welfare) economic abuse can have very severe consequences. Abusive relations have been associated with malnutrition among both mothers and children. In India, for example,
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3424-429: A woman is at higher risk to be abused or long-standing abuse may change in severity, causing negative health effects to the mother and fetus. Pregnancy can also lead to a hiatus of domestic violence when the abuser does not want to harm the unborn child. The risk of domestic violence for women who have been pregnant is greatest immediately after childbirth . Acid attacks , are an extreme form of violence in which acid
3531-440: Is a mental and behavioral disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault , warfare , traffic collisions , child abuse , domestic violence , or other threats on a person's life or well-being. Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma -related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in
3638-474: Is a common form of psychological intimidation, and is most often perpetrated by former or current intimate partners. Victims tend to feel their partner has nearly total control over them, greatly affecting the power dynamic in a relationship, empowering the perpetrator, and disempowering the victim. Victims often experience depression , putting them at increased risk of eating disorders , suicide , and drug and alcohol abuse . Coercive control involves
3745-400: Is a period of calm. When the situation is calm, the abused person may be hopeful that the situation will change. Then, tensions begin to build, and the cycle starts again. A common aspect among abusers is that they witnessed abuse in their childhood. They were participants in a chain of intergenerational cycles of domestic violence. That does not mean, conversely, that if a child witnesses or
3852-487: Is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his widow, and the widow is obliged to marry her deceased husband's brother. Marital rape is non-consensual penetration perpetrated against a spouse. It is under-reported, under-prosecuted, and legal in many countries, due in part to the belief that through marriage, a woman gives irrevocable consent for her husband to have sex with her when he wishes. In Lebanon , for instance, while discussing
3959-510: Is also associated with PTSD. There is evidence that susceptibility to PTSD is hereditary . Approximately 30% of the variance in PTSD is caused from genetics alone. For twin pairs exposed to combat in Vietnam, having a monozygotic (identical) twin with PTSD was associated with an increased risk of the co-twin's having PTSD compared to twins that were dizygotic (non-identical twins). Women with
4066-501: Is also higher if people around the survivor ignore (or are ignorant of) the rape or blame the rape survivor. Military service in combat is a risk factor for developing PTSD. Around 22% of people exposed to combat develop PTSD; in about 25% of military personnel who develop PTSD, its appearance is delayed. Refugees are also at an increased risk for PTSD due to their exposure to war, hardships, and traumatic events. The rates for PTSD within refugee populations range from 4% to 86%. While
4173-620: Is associated with forced sex, fear of or inability to make a contraceptive decision, fear of violence after refusing sex, and abusive partner interference with access to healthcare. In some cultures, marriage imposes a social obligation for women to reproduce. In northern Ghana, for example, payment of bride price signifies a woman's requirement to bear children, and women who use birth control face threats of violence and reprisals. WHO includes forced marriage, cohabitation, and pregnancy including wife inheritance within its definition of sexual violence. Wife inheritance, or levirate marriage ,
4280-428: Is caused by the victim's inadequacy (as a wife, a lover, or as a human being) rather than the perpetrators' selfish desire for power and control over them. Lenore E. Walker presented the model of a cycle of abuse which consists of four phases. First, there is a buildup to abuse when tension rises until a domestic violence incident ensues. During the reconciliation stage, the abuser may be kind and loving and then there
4387-810: Is common to have symptoms after any traumatic event, these must persist to a sufficient degree (i.e., causing dysfunction in life or clinical levels of distress) for longer than one month after the trauma to be classified as PTSD (clinically significant dysfunction or distress for less than one month after the trauma may be acute stress disorder ). Some following a traumatic event experience post-traumatic growth . Trauma survivors often develop depression, anxiety disorders, and mood disorders in addition to PTSD. More than 50% of those with PTSD have co-morbid anxiety , mood or substance use disorders . Substance use disorder , such as alcohol use disorder , commonly co-occur with PTSD. Recovery from post-traumatic stress disorder or other anxiety disorders may be hindered, or
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4494-573: Is defined by WHO as "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons." This procedure has been performed on more than 125 million females alive today, and it is concentrated in 29 countries in Africa and Middle East. Incest , or sexual contact between a related adult and a child, is one form of familial sexual violence. In some cultures, there are ritualized forms of child sexual abuse taking place with
4601-563: Is equivalent. Differences in frequency, severity, purpose, and outcome are all significant. Domestic violence can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault (hitting, kicking, biting, shoving, restraining, slapping, throwing objects, beating up, etc.), or threats thereof; sexual abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation ; stalking ; passive/covert abuse (e.g. neglect ); and economic deprivation. It can also mean endangerment, criminal coercion, kidnapping, unlawful imprisonment, trespassing, and harassment . Physical abuse
4708-404: Is increased in individuals who are exposed to physical abuse , physical assault , or kidnapping . Women who experience physical violence are more likely to develop PTSD than men. An individual that has been exposed to domestic violence is predisposed to the development of PTSD. There is a strong association between the development of PTSD in mothers that experienced domestic violence during
4815-533: Is normally important in restoring homeostasis after the stress response, it is thought that trauma survivors with low cortisol experience a poorly contained—that is, longer and more distressing—response, setting the stage for PTSD. It is thought that the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system mediates the over-consolidation of fear memory. High levels of cortisol reduce noradrenergic activity, and because people with PTSD tend to have reduced levels of cortisol, it has been proposed that individuals with PTSD cannot regulate
4922-452: Is now commonly defined broadly to include "all acts of physical, sexual, psychological or economic violence " that may be committed by a family member or intimate partner. The term intimate partner violence is often used synonymously with domestic abuse or domestic violence , but it specifically refers to violence occurring within a couple's relationship (i.e. marriage, cohabitation, or non-cohabiting intimate partners). To these,
5029-423: Is similar to PTSD, but has a distinct effect on a person's emotional regulation and core identity. Prevention may be possible when counselling is targeted at those with early symptoms, but is not effective when provided to all trauma-exposed individuals regardless of whether symptoms are present. The main treatments for people with PTSD are counselling (psychotherapy) and medication. Antidepressants of
5136-433: Is subject to violence that they will become abusers. Understanding and breaking the intergenerational abuse patterns may do more to reduce domestic violence than other remedies for managing the abuse. Responses that focus on children suggest that experiences throughout life influence an individual's propensity to engage in family violence (either as a victim or as a perpetrator). Researchers supporting this theory suggest it
5243-714: Is that involving contact intended to cause fear, pain, injury, other physical suffering or bodily harm. In the context of coercive control, physical abuse is used to control the victim. The dynamics of physical abuse in a relationship are often complex. Physical violence can be the culmination of other abusive behavior, such as threats, intimidation, and restriction of victim self-determination through isolation, manipulation and other limitations of personal freedom. Denying medical care, sleep deprivation, and forced drug or alcohol use, are also forms of physical abuse. It can also include inflicting physical injury onto other targets, such as children or pets, in order to cause emotional harm to
5350-466: Is thrown at the victims, usually their faces, resulting in extensive damage including long-term blindness and permanent scarring . These are commonly a form of revenge against a woman for rejecting a marriage proposal or sexual advance. In the Middle East and other parts of the world, planned domestic homicides, or honor killings , are carried out due to the belief of the perpetrators that
5457-403: Is useful to think of three sources of domestic violence: childhood socialization, previous experiences in couple relationships during adolescence, and levels of strain in a person's current life. People who observe their parents abusing each other, or who were themselves abused may incorporate abuse into their behaviour within relationships that they establish as adults. Research indicates that
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#17327986945695564-468: The SSRI or SNRI type are the first-line medications used for PTSD and are moderately beneficial for about half of people. Benefits from medication are less than those seen with counselling. It is not known whether using medications and counselling together has greater benefit than either method separately. Medications, other than some SSRIs or SNRIs, do not have enough evidence to support their use and, in
5671-563: The World Health Organization (WHO) adds controlling behaviors as a form of abuse. Intimate partner violence has been observed in opposite and same-sex relationships, and in the former instance by both men against women and women against men. Family violence is a broader term, often used to include child abuse , elder abuse , and other violent acts between family members. In 1993, the UN Declaration on
5778-514: The first-wave feminist movement , during the 19th century, led to changes in both popular opinion and legislation regarding domestic violence within the UK, the US, and other countries. In 1850, Tennessee became the first state in the US to explicitly outlaw wife beating. Other states soon followed. In 1871, the tide of legal opinion began to turn against the idea of a right to wife-beating, as courts in Massachusetts and Alabama reversed
5885-526: The hippocampus , insula cortex , and anterior cingulate . Much of this research stems from PTSD in those exposed to the Vietnam War. People with PTSD have decreased brain activity in the dorsal and rostral anterior cingulate cortices and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex , areas linked to the experience and regulation of emotion. The amygdala is strongly involved in forming emotional memories, especially fear-related memories. During high stress,
5992-421: The hippocampus , which is associated with placing memories in the correct context of space and time and memory recall, is suppressed. According to one theory, this suppression may be the cause of the flashbacks that can affect people with PTSD. When someone with PTSD undergoes stimuli similar to the traumatic event, the body perceives the event as occurring again because the memory was never properly recorded in
6099-523: The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis . The maintenance of fear has been shown to include the HPA axis, the locus coeruleus - noradrenergic systems, and the connections between the limbic system and frontal cortex . The HPA axis that coordinates the hormonal response to stress, which activates the LC-noradrenergic system, is implicated in the over-consolidation of memories that occurs in
6206-432: The perinatal period of their pregnancy. Those who have experienced sexual assault or rape may develop symptoms of PTSD. The likelihood of sustained symptoms of PTSD is higher if the rapist confined or restrained the person, if the person being raped believed the rapist would kill them, the person who was raped was very young or very old, and if the rapist was someone they knew. The likelihood of sustained severe symptoms
6313-508: The thyroid hormone triiodothyronine in PTSD. This kind of type 2 allostatic adaptation may contribute to increased sensitivity to catecholamines and other stress mediators. Hyperresponsiveness in the norepinephrine system can also be caused by continued exposure to high stress. Overactivation of norepinephrine receptors in the prefrontal cortex can be connected to the flashbacks and nightmares frequently experienced by those with PTSD. A decrease in other norepinephrine functions (awareness of
6420-617: The 1970s, in large part due to the diagnoses of U.S. military veterans of the Vietnam War . It was officially recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980 in the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III). Symptoms of PTSD generally begin within the first three months after the inciting traumatic event, but may not begin until years later. In
6527-746: The American colonies. The 1641 Body of Liberties of the Massachusetts Bay colonists declared that a married woman should be "free from bodily correction or stripes by her husband." New Hampshire and Rhode Island also explicitly banned wife-beating in their criminal codes. Following the American Revolution , changes in the legal system placed greater power in the hands of precedent-setting state courts rather than local justices. Many states transferred jurisdiction in divorce cases from their legislatures to their judicial system, and
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#17327986945696634-1014: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV), revealed that 22% of cancer survivors present with lifetime cancer-related PTSD (CR-PTSD), endorsing cancer diagnosis and treatment as a traumatic stressor. Therefore, as the number of people diagnosed with cancer increases and cancer survivorship improves, cancer-related PTSD becomes a more prominent issue, and thus, providing for cancer patients' physical and psychological needs becomes increasingly important. Evidence‐based treatments such as eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy and cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) are available for PTSD, and indeed, there have been promising reports of their effectiveness in cancer patients. Women who experience miscarriage are at risk of PTSD. Those who experience subsequent miscarriages have an increased risk of PTSD compared to those experiencing only one. PTSD can also occur after childbirth and
6741-499: The Elimination of Violence Against Women defined domestic violence as: Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry -related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation. The Encyclopædia Britannica states that "in
6848-480: The HPA axis by dexamethasone . Studies on the peripheral immune have found dysfunction with elevated cytokine levels and a higher risk of immune-related chronic diseases among individuals with PTSD. Neuroimmune dysfunction has also been found in PTSD, raising the possibility of a suppressed central immune response due to reduced activity of microglia in the brain in response to immune challenges. Individuals with PTSD, compared to controls, have lower increase in
6955-769: The absence of therapy, symptoms may continue for decades. One estimate suggests that the proportion of children and adolescents having PTSD in a non-wartorn population in a developed country may be 1% compared to 1.5% to 3% of adults. On average, 16% of children exposed to a traumatic event develop PTSD, with the incidence varying according to type of exposure and gender. Similar to the adult population, risk factors for PTSD in children include: female gender , exposure to disasters (natural or man-made), negative coping behaviors, and/or lacking proper social support systems. Predictor models have consistently found that childhood trauma, chronic adversity, neurobiological differences, and familial stressors are associated with risk for PTSD after
7062-589: The abuser believes that they are entitled to it, or that it is acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported. It may produce an intergenerational cycle of violence in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is acceptable or condoned. Many people do not recognize themselves as abusers or victims, because they may consider their experiences as family conflicts that had gotten out of control. Awareness, perception, definition and documentation of domestic violence differs widely from country to country. Additionally, domestic violence often happens in
7169-610: The aftermath of trauma. This over-consolidation increases the likelihood of one's developing PTSD. The amygdala is responsible for threat detection and the conditioned and unconditioned fear responses that are carried out as a response to a threat. The HPA axis is responsible for coordinating the hormonal response to stress. Given the strong cortisol suppression to dexamethasone in PTSD, HPA axis abnormalities are likely predicated on strong negative feedback inhibition of cortisol, itself likely due to an increased sensitivity of glucocorticoid receptors . PTSD has been hypothesized to be
7276-509: The case of benzodiazepines , may worsen outcomes. In the United States, about 3.5% of adults have PTSD in a given year, and 9% of people develop it at some point in their life. In much of the rest of the world, rates during a given year are between 0.5% and 1%. Higher rates may occur in regions of armed conflict . It is more common in women than men. Symptoms of trauma-related mental disorders have been documented since at least
7383-501: The commonly associated behavioral symptoms such as anxiety, ruminations, irritability, aggression, suicidality, and impulsivity. Serotonin also contributes to the stabilization of glucocorticoid production. Dopamine levels in a person with PTSD can contribute to symptoms: low levels can contribute to anhedonia , apathy , impaired attention , and motor deficits; high levels can contribute to psychosis , agitation , and restlessness. hasral studies described elevated concentrations of
7490-550: The condition worsened, when substance use disorders are comorbid with PTSD. Resolving these problems can bring about improvement in an individual's mental health status and anxiety levels. PTSD has a strong association with tinnitus , and can even possibly be the tinnitus' cause. In children and adolescents, there is a strong association between emotional regulation difficulties (e.g. mood swings, anger outbursts, temper tantrums ) and post-traumatic stress symptoms, independent of age, gender, or type of trauma. Moral injury ,
7597-457: The context of forced or child marriages . In abusive relationships, there may be a cycle of abuse during which tensions rise and an act of violence is committed, followed by a period of reconciliation and calm. The victims may be trapped in domestically violent situations through isolation , power and control , traumatic bonding to the abuser, cultural acceptance, lack of financial resources, fear , and shame , or to protect children. As
7704-573: The current environment) prevents the memory mechanisms in the brain from processing the experience, and emotions the person is experiencing during a flashback are not associated with the current environment. There is considerable controversy within the medical community regarding the neurobiology of PTSD. A 2012 review showed no clear relationship between cortisol levels and PTSD. The majority of reports indicate people with PTSD have elevated levels of corticotropin-releasing hormone , lower basal cortisol levels, and enhanced negative feedback suppression of
7811-422: The development of PTSD. PTSD causes biochemical changes in the brain and body, that differ from other psychiatric disorders such as major depression . Individuals diagnosed with PTSD respond more strongly to a dexamethasone suppression test than individuals diagnosed with clinical depression . Most people with PTSD show a low secretion of cortisol and high secretion of catecholamines in urine , with
7918-406: The early 1800s, most legal systems implicitly accepted wife-beating as a husband's right" over his wife. English common law , dating back to the 16th century, treated domestic violence as a crime against the community rather than against the individual woman by charging wife beating as a breach of the peace . Wives had the right to seek redress in the form of a peace bond from a local justice of
8025-400: The family. In divorce and criminal domestic violence cases, judges would levy harsh punishments against male perpetrators, but when the gender roles were reversed they would often give little to no punishment to female perpetrators. By the early 20th century, it was common for police to intervene in cases of domestic violence in the US, but arrests remained rare. In most legal systems around
8132-540: The fear of losing control or actual loss of control. The incidence of PTSD in survivors of psychosis may be as low as 11% and as high at 67%. Prevalence estimates of cancer‐related PTSD range between 7% and 14%, with an additional 10% to 20% of patients experiencing subsyndromal posttraumatic stress symptoms (ie, PTSS). Both PTSD and PTSS have been associated with increased distress and impaired quality of life, and have been reported in newly diagnosed patients as well as in long‐term survivors. The PTSD Field Trials for
8239-409: The feeling of moral distress such as a shame or guilt following a moral transgression, is associated with PTSD but is distinguished from it. Moral injury is associated with shame and guilt, while PTSD is associated with anxiety and fear. In a population based study examining veterans of the Vietnam War , the presence of PTSD and exposure to high level stressors on the battlefield were associated with
8346-777: The general population would be more in the 15–20% range ... As violence becomes more severe and chronic in the relationship, the likelihood of psychopathology in these men approaches 100%." Dutton has suggested a psychological profile of men who abuse their wives, arguing that they have borderline personalities that are developed early in life. However, these psychological theories are disputed: Gelles suggests that psychological theories are limited, and points out that other researchers have found that only 10% (or less) fit this psychological profile. He argues that social factors are important, while personality traits, mental illness, or psychopathy are lesser factors. Post-traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD )
8453-568: The increased noradrenergic response to traumatic stress. Intrusive memories and conditioned fear responses are thought to be a result of the response to associated triggers. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) has been reported to reduce the release of norepinephrine and has been demonstrated to have anxiolytic properties in animal models. Studies have shown people with PTSD demonstrate reduced levels of NPY, possibly indicating their increased anxiety levels. Other studies indicate that people with PTSD have chronically low levels of serotonin , which contributes to
8560-514: The knowledge and consent of the family, where the child is induced to engage in sexual acts with adults, possibly in exchange for money or goods. For instance, in Malawi some parents arrange for an older man, often called a hyena , to have sex with their daughters as a form of initiation. The Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse
8667-601: The legal recourse available to battered women increasingly became divorce on grounds of cruelty and suing for assault. This placed a greater burden of proof on the woman, as she needed to demonstrate to a court that her life was at risk. In 1824, the Mississippi Supreme Court , citing the rule of thumb , established a positive right to wife-beating in State v. Bradley , a precedent which would hold sway in common law for decades to come. Political agitation and
8774-597: The marriage. Dowry violence is most common in South Asia , especially in India. In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths in India, but unofficial figures estimate at least three times this amount. The WHO defines sexual abuse as any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic , or otherwise directed, against
8881-557: The more children are physically punished, the more likely they will be as adults to act violently towards family members, including intimate partners. People who are spanked more as children are more likely as adults to approve of hitting a partner, and also experience more marital conflict and feelings of anger in general. A number of studies have found physical punishment to be associated with "higher levels of aggression against parents, siblings, peers and spouses", even when controlling for other factors. While these associations do not prove
8988-688: The offender. Personality traits include sudden bursts of anger , poor impulse control , and poor self-esteem . Various theories suggest that psychopathology is a factor, and that abuse experienced as a child leads some people to be more violent as adults. Correlation has been found between juvenile delinquency and domestic violence in adulthood. Studies have found a high incidence of psychopathology among domestic abusers. For instance, some research suggests that about 80% of both court-referred and self-referred men in these domestic violence studies exhibited diagnosable psychopathology, typically personality disorders . "The estimate of personality disorders in
9095-406: The part of the woman. Research has established that there exists a direct and significant correlation between a country's level of gender inequality and rates of domestic violence, where countries with less gender equality experience higher rates of domestic violence. Domestic violence is among the most underreported crimes worldwide for both men and women. Domestic violence often occurs when
9202-540: The peace . Procedures were informal and off the record, and no legal guidance specified the standard of proof or degree of violence which would suffice for a conviction. The two typical sentences were forcing a husband to post bond, or forcing him to stake pledges from his associates to guarantee good behavior in the future. Beatings could also be formally charged as assault, although such prosecutions were rare and save for cases of severe injury or death, sentences were typically small fines. By extension, this framework held in
9309-565: The precedent set in Bradley . In 1878, the UK Matrimonial Causes Act made it possible for women in the UK to seek legal separation from an abusive husband. By the end of the 1870s, most courts in the US had rejected a claimed right of husbands to physically discipline their wives. In the early 20th century, paternalistic judges regularly protected perpetrators of domestic violence in order to reinforce gender norms within
9416-441: The right to a private family life does not include the right to abuse family members, and acknowledged that, at the time of its writing, most legal systems considered domestic violence to be largely outside the scope of the law, describing the situation at that time as follows: "Physical discipline of children is allowed and, indeed, encouraged in many legal systems and a large number of countries allow moderate physical chastisement of
9523-451: The risk increases if a woman has experienced trauma prior to the pregnancy. Prevalence of PTSD following normal childbirth (that is, excluding stillbirth or major complications) is estimated to be between 2.8 and 5.6% at six weeks postpartum, with rates dropping to 1.5% at six months postpartum. Symptoms of PTSD are common following childbirth, with prevalence of 24–30.1% at six weeks, dropping to 13.6% at six months. Emergency childbirth
9630-420: The sexual act. This could be because of underage immaturity, illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or due to intimidation or pressure. In many cultures, victims of rape are considered to have brought dishonor or disgrace to their families and face severe familial violence, including honor killings. This is especially the case if the victim becomes pregnant. Female genital mutilation
9737-589: The stresses of war affect everyone involved, displaced persons have been shown to be more so than others. Challenges related to the overall psychosocial well-being of refugees are complex and individually nuanced. Refugees have reduced levels of well-being and a high rate of mental distress due to past and ongoing trauma. Groups that are particularly affected and whose needs often remain unmet are women, older people and unaccompanied minors. Post-traumatic stress and depression in refugee populations also tend to affect their educational success. Sudden, unexpected death of
9844-812: The term domestic violence in a modern context, meaning violence in the home, was in an address to the Parliament of the United Kingdom by Jack Ashley in 1973. The term previously referred primarily to civil unrest , domestic violence from within a country as opposed to international violence perpetrated by a foreign power. Traditionally, domestic violence (DV) was mostly associated with physical violence. Terms such as wife abuse , wife beating , wife battering , and battered woman were used, but have declined in popularity due to efforts to include unmarried partners, abuse other than physical, female perpetrators, and same-sex relationships. Domestic violence
9951-495: The time of the ancient Greeks . A few instances of evidence of post-traumatic illness have been argued to exist from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, such as the diary of Samuel Pepys , who described intrusive and distressing symptoms following the 1666 Fire of London . During the world wars , the condition was known under various terms, including ' shell shock ', 'war nerves', neurasthenia and ' combat neurosis '. The term "post-traumatic stress disorder" came into use in
10058-575: The toleration, in law or in practice, of violence against women and domestic violence. In its explanatory report, it acknowledges the long tradition of European countries of ignoring, de jure or de facto , these forms of violence. At para 219, it states: "There are many examples from past practice in Council of Europe member states that show that exceptions to the prosecution of such cases were made, either in law or in practice, if victim and perpetrator were, for example, married to each other or had been in
10165-442: The traumatic event is also associated with a subsequent risk of developing PTSD, with experiences related to witnessed death, or witnessed or experienced torture, injury, bodily disfigurement, traumatic brain injury being highly associated with the development of PTSD. Similarly, experiences that are unexpected or in which the victim cannot escape are also associated with a high risk of developing PTSD. PTSD has been associated with
10272-413: The typical case, the individual with PTSD persistently avoids either trauma-related thoughts and emotions or discussion of the traumatic event and may even have amnesia of the event ( dissociative amnesia ). However, the event is commonly relived by the individual through intrusive, recurrent recollections, dissociative episodes of reliving the trauma (" flashbacks "), and nightmares (50 to 70%). While it
10379-748: The use of technology to harass, control, monitor, stalk or hack. Domestic murder includes stoning , bride burning , honor killing , and dowry death , which sometimes involves non-cohabitating family members. In 2015, the United Kingdom's Home Office widened the definition of domestic violence to include coercive control. Worldwide, the victims of domestic violence are overwhelmingly women, and women tend to experience more severe forms of violence. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates one in three of all women are subject to domestic violence at some point in their life. In some countries, domestic violence may be seen as justified or legally permitted, particularly in cases of actual or suspected infidelity on
10486-427: The victim has brought dishonor upon the family or community. According to Human Rights Watch , honor killings are generally performed against women for "refusing to enter into an arranged marriage , being the victim of a sexual assault , seeking a divorce" or being accused of committing adultery . In some parts of the world, where there is a strong social expectation for a woman to be a virgin prior to marriage,
10593-419: The victim's daily schedule via spyware. Victims usually feel a sense of anxiety and fear that seriously affects their personal life, financially, physically and psychologically. Economic abuse (or financial abuse) is a form of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other partner's access to economic resources. Marital assets are used as a means of control. Economic abuse may involve preventing
10700-456: The victim. Strangulation in the context of domestic violence has received significant attention. It is now recognized as one of the most lethal forms of domestic violence; yet, because of the lack of external injuries, and the lack of social awareness and medical training in regard to it, strangulation has often been a hidden problem. As a result, in recent years, many US states have enacted specific laws against strangulation. Homicide as
10807-924: The way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response . These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia . Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play . A person with PTSD is at a higher risk of suicide and intentional self-harm . Most people who experience traumatic events do not develop PTSD. People who experience interpersonal violence such as rape, other sexual assaults, being kidnapped, stalking, physical abuse by an intimate partner, and childhood abuse are more likely to develop PTSD than those who experience non- assault based trauma, such as accidents and natural disasters . Those who experience prolonged trauma, such as slavery, concentration camps, or chronic domestic abuse, may develop complex post-traumatic stress disorder (C-PTSD). C-PTSD
10914-443: The withholding of food is a documented form of family abuse. One of the most important factors in domestic violence is a belief that abuse, whether physical or verbal, is acceptable. Other risk factors include substance abuse, lack of education, mental health problems, lack of coping skills, childhood abuse, and excessive dependence on the abuser. An overriding motive for committing acts of domestic and interpersonal violence in
11021-509: The world, a young bride moves with the family of her husband. As a new girl in the home, she starts as having the lowest (or among the lowest) position in the family, is often subjected to violence and abuse, and is, in particular, strongly controlled by the parents-in-law: with the arrival of the daughter-in-law in the family, the mother-in-law's status is elevated and she now has (often for the first time in her life) substantial power over someone else, and "this family system itself tends to produce
11128-466: The world, domestic violence has been addressed only from the 1990s onward; indeed, before the late 20th century, in most countries there was very little protection, in law or in practice, against domestic violence. In 1993, the UN published Strategies for Confronting Domestic Violence: A Resource Manual . This publication urged countries around the world to treat domestic violence as a criminal act, stated that
11235-535: Was also a common practice. Child maltreatment began to garner mainstream attention with the publication of "The Battered Child Syndrome" by pediatric psychiatrist C. Henry Kempe in 1962. Prior to this, injuries to children – even repeated bone fractures – were not commonly recognized as the results of intentional trauma. Instead, physicians often looked for undiagnosed bone diseases or accepted parents' accounts of accidental mishaps, such as falls or assaults by neighborhood bullies. Not all domestic violence
11342-514: Was enacted in 2005, following years of advocacy and activism by the women's organizations. Crimes of passion in Latin America, a region which has a history of treating such killings with extreme leniency, have also come to international attention. In 2002, Widney Brown, advocacy director for Human Rights Watch, argued that there are similarities between the dynamics of crimes of passion and honor killings, stating that: "crimes of passion have
11449-413: Was the first international treaty to address child sexual abuse occurring within the home or family. Reproductive coercion (also called coerced reproduction ) are threats or acts of violence against a partner's reproductive rights, health and decision-making; and includes a collection of behaviors intended to pressure or coerce a partner into becoming pregnant or ending a pregnancy. Reproductive coercion
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