95-513: Willows are a genus of trees. Willow Tree may refer to: Willow Willows , also called sallows and osiers , of the genus Salix , comprise around 350 species (plus numerous hybrids) of typically deciduous trees and shrubs , found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions. Most species are known as willow , but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier , and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow (from Old English sealh , related to
190-548: A "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University. During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland ; Rudbeck had made
285-483: A catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. It contains the first use of the name Nepenthes , which Linnaeus used to describe a genus of pitcher plants . Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and
380-475: A child's talents than develop them". Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717. Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler. He reached
475-659: A collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet , as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller . He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in Systema Naturae . At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature , preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray . Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary . The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary
570-430: A copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica , a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It
665-559: A curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood. In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer. Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany
760-575: A director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede . Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him
855-538: A dissertation, written back in Sweden, entitled Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa , in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the Anopheles mosquito ), he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua ( wormwood ) would become
950-456: A family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl . Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina , was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia. In May 1741, Linnaeus
1045-426: A few days; they require warm and moist conditions to take root. The plants can also reproduce vegetatively from decapitated stumps and branches. Willows produce a modest amount of nectar from which bees can make honey , and are especially valued as a source of early pollen for bees. Various animals browse the foliage or shelter amongst the plants. Beavers use willows to build dams. The trees are used as food by
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#17327988346751140-497: A letter to the Royal Society describing his experiments with powdered bark of white willow ( Salix alba ). He had noticed the willow bark tasted bitter, like 'Peruvian Bark' ( cinchona ), which was used to treat fevers, and he speculated that the willow would have a similar effect. Over several years he tested it on as many as fifty patients and found it to be highly effective (especially when mixed with cinchona). Whether this
1235-480: A naturalist." Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum (Prince of Botanists) and "The Pliny of the North". He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology . In botany, the abbreviation L. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name. In zoology, the abbreviation Linnaeus is generally used; the abbreviations L., Linnæus and Linné are also used. In older publications,
1330-475: A new benefactor, Olof Celsius , who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden. In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, Praeludia Sponsaliorum Plantarum on plant sexual reproduction . This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at
1425-569: A number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system. Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius . He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though
1520-630: A physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin , who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science ; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots. Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support
1615-561: A practical way, making this the first proto-modern Flora . The account covered 534 species, used the Linnaean classification system and included, for the described species, geographical distribution and taxonomic notes. It was Augustin Pyramus de Candolle who attributed Linnaeus with Flora Lapponica as the first example in the botanical genre of Flora writing. Botanical historian E. L. Greene described Flora Lapponica as "the most classic and delightful" of Linnaeus's works. It
1710-580: A small group of students to Dalarna . Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros . His relations with Nils Rosén having worsened, Linnaeus accepted an invitation from Claes Sohlberg, son of a mining inspector, to spend the Christmas holiday in Falun , where Linnaeus
1805-462: A source of antimalarial medications. Within two weeks he had completed his oral and practical examinations and was awarded a doctoral degree. That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi , a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam , leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on
1900-452: A thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer ( prases ) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as La Nourrice marâtre, ou Dissertation sur les suites funestes du nourrisage mercénaire . Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb
1995-513: A willow will attempt to put out leaves and flowers. In the northern hemisphere, leaf drop in autumn occurs when day length shortens to approximately ten hours and 25 minutes, which varies by latitude (as early as the first week of October for boreal species such as S. alaxensis and as late as the third week of December for willows growing in far southern areas). With the exception of Salix martiana , willows are dioecious , with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants;
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#17327988346752090-500: Is a hybrid of Peking willow ( Salix babylonica ) from China and white willow ( Salix alba ) from Europe. The widely planted Chinese willow Salix matsudana is now considered a synonym of S. babylonica . Numerous cultivars of Salix have been developed and named over the centuries. New selections of cultivars with superior technical and ornamental characteristics have been chosen deliberately and applied to various purposes. Many cultivars and unmodified species of Salix have gained
2185-436: Is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous. The scientific use of the genus name Salix originates with Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The modern concept of types did not exist at the time, so types for Linnaeus' genera had to be designated later. The type species , i.e., the species on which the genus name is based, is Salix alba , based on a conserved type. The generic name Salix comes from Latin and
2280-635: Is uncertain. The seeds of the Haluppu-tree were recommended in the Sumerian narrative of Gilgameš, Enkidu and the Nether World as treatment for infertility, but the "Haluppu-tree" could have been oak, poplar or willow. The ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus mentions willow (of uncertain species) in three remedies. One, as part of an elaborate recipe for a poultice to "make the met supple," which involved 36 other ingredients including "fruit of
2375-450: The Beast of Revelation . Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg. Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk , a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. He submitted
2470-667: The Latin word salix , willow). Some willows (particularly arctic and alpine species) are low-growing or creeping shrubs; for example, the dwarf willow ( Salix herbacea ) rarely exceeds 6 centimetres ( 2 + 1 ⁄ 2 in) in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap , which is heavily charged with salicylic acid , soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches, and large, fibrous, often stoloniferous roots . The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to live, and roots readily sprout from aerial parts of
2565-642: The Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit . Most recently, Salix has become an important source for bioenergy production and for various ecosystem services . Names of hybrids and cultivars were until recently (2021) compiled by a working party of the UN FAO, the International Cultivar Registration Authority (ICRAs) for the genus Salix (willows) Archived 7 December 2018 at
2660-594: The Wayback Machine , but it is no longer active. The Quinault people made the bark into a twine which sometimes served as harpoon line. The wood was used by some Native American tribes to start fires by friction , the shoots to weave baskets , and both the branches and stems to build various items including fishing weirs . The leaves and bark of the willow have been mentioned in ancient texts from Assyria , Sumer and Egypt and in Ancient Greece
2755-495: The curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house. Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he
2850-447: The larvae of some species of Lepidoptera , such as the mourning cloak butterfly . Ants, such as wood ants , are common on willows inhabited by aphids , coming to collect aphid honeydew , as sometimes do wasps . Willow species are hosts to more than a hundred aphid species, belonging to Chaitophorus and other genera, forming large colonies to feed on plant juices, on the underside of leaves in particular. Corythucha elegans ,
2945-578: The Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson , the manuscript was published as Systema Naturae (1735). Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave , who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit
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3040-558: The Swedish province of Västergötland . He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book Wästgöta-Resa , published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to
3135-490: The University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan
3230-534: The abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself. Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland , Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted
3325-487: The active constituent. It was long after the invention of aspirin that the idea emerged that willow bark is an effective painkiller. It may often be based on the belief that willow actually contains aspirin. Articles asserting that the ancients used willow for this purpose have been published in academic journals such as the British Journal of Haematology . There are now many papers, books and articles repeating
3420-543: The age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis". Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek , Hebrew , theology and mathematics ,
3515-442: The botanist Johannes Burman . After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his Thesaurus Zeylanicus . Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: Fundamenta Botanica and Bibliotheca Botanica . In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III ,
3610-486: The bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate. Usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the stipules often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves, and sometimes remaining for half the summer. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, and caducous (soon falling). In color,
3705-413: The bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens; they are two-celled and the cells open latitudinally. The filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The pistillate (female) flowers are also without calyx or corolla, and consist of a single ovary accompanied by a small, flat nectar gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is likewise borne on the rachis of a catkin. The ovary
3800-440: The catkins are produced early in the spring, often before the leaves. The staminate (male) flowers have neither calyx nor corolla ; they consist simply of stamens, varying in number from two to 10, accompanied by a nectariferous gland and inserted on the base of a scale which is itself borne on the rachis of a drooping raceme called a catkin, or ament. This scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in
3895-548: The causes of fevers were poorly understood, and there is no suggestion at all of any possible analgesic effect from the use of willow. The first lasting evidence that salicylate, from willow and other plant species, might have real medicinal uses came in 1876, when the Scottish physician Thomas MacLagan experimented with salicin as a treatment for acute rheumatism , with considerable success, as he reported in The Lancet . Meanwhile, German scientists tried salicylic acid in
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3990-653: The claim that the ancients used willow for pain relief, and numerous willow-based products can be purchased for this purpose. Modern research suggests that only the mildest analgesic effect could be derived from the use of willow extract, and even that may be due to flavonoids and polyphenols as much as salicylic acid. Some of humans' earliest manufactured items may have been made from willow. A fishing net made from willow dates back to 8300 BC. Basic crafts, such as baskets, fish traps, wattle fences and wattle and daub house walls, were woven from osiers or withies (rod-like willow shoots, often grown in pollards ). One of
4085-424: The class of organisms. Linnaeus published Species Plantarum , the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature , in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of
4180-409: The classification of fish. One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius , to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by
4275-537: The development of aspirin in the late 1800s." Herbal uses of willow have continued into modern times. In the early 20th century, Maud Grieve described using the bark and the powdered root of white willow ( Salix alba ) for its tonic , antiperiodic and astringent qualities and recommended its use in treating dyspepsia, worms, chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. Like other herbalists, she makes no mention of it having any analgesic effect, despite widespread awareness of aspirin by this time, and she considered tannin to be
4370-439: The dompalm, beans and amaa grains." The meaning of met is uncertain, but it may be something to do with the nervous system. The second is as part of a treatment for the "Great Debility," when "rush from the green willow tree" is combined with ass's semen, fresh bread, herbs of the field, figs, grapes and wine. Finally, it is used as a stiffening agent in a concoction of "fat flesh, figs, dates, incense, garlic and sweet beer" to put
4465-440: The expedition were later published in Öländska och Gothländska Resa , written in Swedish. Like Flora Lapponica , it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland. During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: Flora Suecica and Fauna Suecica . Flora Suecica was a strictly botanical book, while Fauna Suecica
4560-411: The family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping ), and Emerentia Linnæa. His father taught him Latin as a small child. One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist , a Lutheran minister , and
4655-422: The first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he
4750-544: The flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala. Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden. During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published
4845-434: The form of sodium salicylate, a sodium salt, with less success and more severe side effects. The treatment of rheumatic fever with salicin gradually gained some acceptance in medical circles. The discovery of acetanilide , in the 1880s, gave rise to an 'acetylation' craze, where chemists experimented with adding an acetyl group to various aromatic organic compounds. Back in 1853, chemist Charles Frédéric Gerhardt treated
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#17327988346754940-628: The forms of Welsh coracle boat traditionally uses willow in the framework. Thin or split willow rods can be woven into wicker , which has a long history. The relatively pliable willow is less likely to split while being woven than many other woods, and can be bent around sharp corners in basketry. Willow wood is used in the manufacture of boxes , brooms , cricket bats , cradle boards , chairmans and other furniture, dolls , willow flutes , poles , sweat lodges , toys, turnery, tool handles, wood veneer , wands and whistles . In addition, tannin , fibre , paper, rope and string can be produced from
5035-656: The genus are known from the early Eocene of North America, with the earliest occurrences in Europe during the Early Oligocene . The genus Salix is made up of around 350 species of deciduous trees and shrubs . They hybridise freely, and over 160 such hybrids have been named. Examples of well-known willows include: Willows are shade tolerant and typically short-lived. They require disturbances to outcompete conifers or large deciduous species. The seeds are tiny, plentiful, carried by wind and water, and viable only for
5130-414: The ground (an exception is the peachleaf willow ( Salix amygdaloides )). One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope , who begged a twig from a parcel tied with twigs sent from Spain to Lady Suffolk . This twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of England's weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are extensively cultivated around
5225-594: The heart into proper working order and make it take up nourishment. The Roman author Aulus Cornelius Celsus only mentions willow once: the leaves, pounded and boiled in vinegar, were to be used as treatment for uterine prolapse , but it is unclear what he considered the therapeutic action to be; it is unlikely to have been pain relief, as he recommended cauterization in the following paragraph. Nicholas Culpeper , in The Complete Herbal , gives many uses for willow, including to staunch wounds, to "stay
5320-424: The heat of lust" in man or woman, and to provoke urine ("if stopped"), but he makes no mention of any supposed analgesic properties. His recommendation to use the burnt ashes of willow bark, mixed with vinegar, to "take away warts, corns, and superfluous flesh," seems to correspond with modern uses of salicylic acid . William Turner 's account, written about 1597, focuses on the ability of the leaves and bark to "stay
5415-827: The journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people , reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey. Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia , later known as Linnaea borealis ,
5510-586: The kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu . After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden. When Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun , where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa . Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as
5605-530: The last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden. He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan (a gymnasium ) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine. By
5700-483: The late 1990s, Daniel Moerman reported many uses of willow by Native Americans. One modern field guide claims that Native Americans across the Americas relied on the willow as a staple of their medical treatments, using the bark to treat ailments such as sore throat and tuberculosis, and further alleging that "Several references mention chewing willow bark as an analgesic for headache and other pain, apparently presaging
5795-400: The leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish color. Willows are among the earliest woody plants to leaf out in spring and the last to drop their leaves in autumn. In the northern hemisphere, leafout may occur as early as February depending on the climate and is stimulated by air temperature. If daytime highs reach 10 °C (50 °F) for a few consecutive days,
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#17327988346755890-487: The medicine sodium salicylate with acetyl chloride to produce acetylsalicylic acid for the first time. More than 40 years later in 1897, Felix Hoffmann created the same acid (in his case derived from the Spiraea plant), which was found in 1899 to have an analgesic effect. This acid was named " Aspirin " by Hoffmann's employer Bayer AG . The discovery of aspirin is therefore only indirectly connected to willow. In
5985-459: The personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. It is thought that his activism played a role in his choice of the term Mammalia for
6080-470: The physician Hippocrates wrote about its medicinal properties in the fifth century BC. Interpreting Mesopotamian cuneiform texts is a challenge, especially when looking for something as specific as a species of plant being used to treat a recognisable condition. Some 5,000 medical prescriptions have been identified from Babylonian writings of the 7th to 3rd centuries BC, involving 1,300 drugs from 340 different plants. Whether any of these relate to willow
6175-409: The plant. The leaves are typically elongated, but they might also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous ; semi- evergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e.g. Salix micans and S. australior in the eastern Mediterranean . All the buds are lateral; no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale. Usually,
6270-461: The quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in Skånska Resa . In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. Perhaps the most important contribution he made during his time at Uppsala was to teach; many of his students travelled to various places in
6365-570: The southernmost province Scania . This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy. In 1747, Linnaeus was given the title archiater , or chief physician, by the Swedish king Adolf Frederick —a mark of great respect. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin . In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania , again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On
6460-444: The spitting of blood, and all other fluxes of blood", if boiled in wine and drunk, but adds a treatment for fever, saying: "the green boughs with the leaves may very well be brought into chambers and set about the beds of those that be sick of fevers, for they do mightily cool the heat of the air, which thing is a wonderful refreshing to the sick patients." In 1763, Reverend Edward Stone , of Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, England, sent
6555-758: The twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens , the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer , a common and economically important animal in Lapland. Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia , making major inland incursions from Umeå , Luleå and Tornio . He returned from his six-month-long, over 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland
6650-636: The two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as " opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit ". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published Genera Plantarum , in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with Corollarium Generum Plantarum , with another sixty ( sexaginta ) genera. His work at Hartekamp led to another book, Hortus Cliffortianus ,
6745-474: The two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg . Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met
6840-455: The use of his library, which included many books about botany. He also gave the student free admission to his lectures. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests. In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on
6935-550: The way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the Ramlösa mineral spa , where he remarked on
7030-476: The way, the pair stopped in Hamburg , where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra . Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake , cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent
7125-971: The willow lace bug, is a bug species in the family Tingidae found on willows in North America. Rhabdophaga rosaria is a type of gall found on willows. Rust , caused by fungi of genus Melampsora , is known to damage leaves of willows, covering them with orange spots. Some Native Americans allowed wildfires to burn and set fires intentionally, allowing new stands to form. A small number of willow species were widely planted in Australia, notably as erosion -control measures along watercourses. They are now regarded as invasive weeds which occupy extensive areas across southern Australia and are considered 'Weeds of National Significance'. Many catchment management authorities are removing and replacing them with native trees. Almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on
7220-630: The wood. Willow is used in the manufacture of double basses for backs, sides and linings, and in making splines and blocks for bass repair. An aqueous extract of willow bark is used as a fungicide in the European Union. The willow bark extract is approved as a 'basic substance' product in the European Union and United Kingdom for the control of scab, leaf peach curl and powdery mildew on grapes, apples and peach crops. Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné ,
7315-485: The world to collect botanical samples. Linnaeus called the best of these students his "apostles". His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored
7410-452: The world. They are used in hedges and landscaping. The high end shopping district of Ginza in Tokyo, Japan , has a long history of cultivating willow, and is well known for its willow lined streets. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation. A well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow ( Salix × sepulcralis ), which
7505-537: The æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications. Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus. Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age. When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman . Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish
7600-433: Was zoological . Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745. In the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to
7695-739: Was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature , the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy ". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus and, after his 1761 ennoblement , as Carolus a Linné . Linnaeus was the son of a curate and was born in Råshult , in the countryside of Småland , southern Sweden . He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published
7790-616: Was a real effect or not is unknown, but although Stone's remedy was experimented with by others at the time, it was never adopted by medical practitioners. During the American Civil War , Confederate forces also experimented with willow as a cure for malaria, without success. In his novel The Mysterious Island (1875), the French novelist Jules Verne outlined the state of scientific knowledge concerning medicinal uses of willow when one of his characters, Herbert (Harbert) Brown,
7885-413: Was a region with limited biodiversity , Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book Flora Lapponica . However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system. In Flora Lapponica Linnaeus's ideas about nomenclature and classification were first used in
7980-640: Was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant . In 1727, Linnaeus, age 21, enrolled in Lund University in Skåne . He was registered as Carolus Linnæus , the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications. Professor Kilian Stobæus , natural scientist, physician and historian, offered Linnaeus tutoring and lodging, as well as
8075-625: Was already used by the Romans for various types of willow. A theory is that the word is ultimately derived from a Celtic language , sal meaning 'near' and lis meaning 'water', alluding to their habitat. Willows are classified into subgenera though what they should be is in flux. Morphological studies generally divide the species into 3 or 5 subgenera: Salix (though some split off subgenera Longifoliae and Protitae ), Chamaetia , and Vetrix . Phylogenetic studies have suggested that Chamaetia and Vetrix be in one clade. The oldest fossils of
8170-441: Was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history , instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala. Ten days after he
8265-487: Was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from
8360-448: Was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds." In 1734, Linnaeus led
8455-572: Was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus , in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof". It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe. ) In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane,
8550-558: Was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the University of Lund , he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree (or lime tree), lind in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead. This name was spelled with the æ ligature . When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with
8645-420: Was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on Earth." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza , I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly." Swedish author August Strindberg wrote: "Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become
8740-551: Was permitted to visit the mines. In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic , where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands , then a highly revered place to study natural history. On
8835-409: Was suffering from a fever induced by a bullet wound: "The bark of the willow has, indeed, been justly considered as a succedaneum for Peruvian bark, as has also that of the horse-chestnut tree, the leaf of the holly, the snake-root, etc.", he wrote. In the story, Herbert is treated with powdered willow bark to no effect, and is saved when a supply of quinine is discovered. It is clear in the novel that
8930-752: Was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils . He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, Genera Plantarum and Critica Botanica . He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden , Adonis Uplandicus . Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén , returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén gave Linnaeus private tutoring in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had
9025-414: Was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants. Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father
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