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51-601: According to the Dictionnaire des rivières et lacs de la province de Québec (1914), TOULNUSTOOK OR TULNUSTUK, (River) -One of the most powerful tributaries of the Manicouagan River in Saguenay County. It is about two hundred feet wide at its mouth where the current is slow and the channel deep. Its direction for the first four miles is North North-East and the current increases all the time to become

102-765: A comprehensive land claims settlement, the Northeastern Quebec Agreement ; they did so in 1978. As a consequence, the Naskapi of Kawawachikamach are no longer subject to certain provisions of the Indian Act . All the Innu communities of Quebec are still subject to the Act. The New York Power Authority 's proposed contract in 2009 with the province of Quebec to buy power from its extensive hydroelectric dam facilities has generated controversy, because it

153-531: A disadvantage in numbers and weaponry, and eventually began to avoid the area rather than risk further defeat. During this conflict, the French colonists took many Innu women as wives. French women did not immigrate to New France in the early period. French explorer Samuel de Champlain eventually became involved in the Innu's conflict with the Iroquois, who were ranging north from their traditional territory around

204-910: A man killed a bear, it was a sign of joy and initiation into adulthood and the man would wear a necklace made from the bear's claws. The houses of the Montagnais were cone shaped. The Naskapi made long, domed houses covered in caribou hides. These days the hearth is a metal stove in the centre of the house. Animals traditionally eaten included moose , caribou, porcupine , rabbits, marten , woodchuck , squirrel; Canada goose , snow goose , brants , ducks, teal , loons , spruce grouse , woodcock , snipe , passenger pigeons , ptarmigan ; whitefish , lake trout , salmon, Arctic char , seal ( naskapi ) pike , walleye , suckerfish ( Catostomidae ), sturgeon , catfish , lamprey , and smelt . Fish were eaten roasted or smoke-dried. Moose meat and several types of fish were also smoked. Oat bannock , introduced by

255-494: A native guide pointed out the three enemy chiefs to the French. According to legend, Champlain fired his arquebus and killed two of the Mohawk chiefs with one shot; one of his men shot and killed the third. The Mohawk reportedly fled the scene. Although the French also traded extensively with the Mohawk and other Iroquois, and converted some to Catholicism, they also continued to have armed conflicts with them. The southern bands of

306-827: A press conference in Albany, New York were translated, but whether from French or Innu-aimun is not clear. Innu have only been in Sheshatshiu since fur trading posts were established by the Hudson's Bay Company in North West River in the mid-1700s and only in Davis Inlet / Natuashish since 1771, when the Moravian Church set up the first mission at Nuneingoak on the Labrador coast. Danny Williams ,

357-439: A rapid at the end of this race. It flows, says Mr. C. H. Valiquette, I. C. (1908), in the middle of a valley three quarters of a mile wide composed of land suitable for cultivation. This valley, as well as the mountains which border it, is very well wooded... Above la Fourche the river runs north-west for the next eleven miles, then the river narrows little by little and the mountains become more bare with very high cliffs. This river

408-503: Is also called Rivière du Coude (Elbow River). Toulnustouc is a term of Innu origin whose meaning is not known. According to the surveyor J. Bignell, the term means "elbow river" or "angled river" which matches the old name of Rivière du Coude (Elbow River). The Geography Commissions of Quebec and Canada define it as "river where they make canoes" or "where canoes are needed". There are also different variants: Todnustook, Tudnustouk, Tootnustook, Tulnustuk, Toulnustook and Toulnoustouc. In

459-570: Is an Algonquian language spoken by over 10,000 Innu in Labrador and Quebec in Eastern Canada . It is a member of the Cree –Montagnais– Naskapi dialect continuum and is spoken in various dialects depending on the community. Since the 1980s, Innu-aimun has had considerable exposure in the popular culture of Canada and France due to the success of the rock music band Kashtin and

510-963: Is giving way to a place distinction. The column titles here refer chiefly to the place of articulation of the long vowel. Macron accent marks over the long vowels are omitted in general writing. e is not written with a macron because there is no contrasting short e . Innu-aimun is a polysynthetic , head-marking language with relatively free word order . Its three basic parts of speech are nouns , verbs , and particles . Nouns are grouped into two genders , animate and inanimate, and may carry affixes indicating plurality , possession , obviation , and location. Verbs are divided into four classes based on their transitivity : animate intransitive (AI), inanimate intransitive (II), transitive inanimate (TI), and transitive animate (TA). Verbs may carry affixes indicating agreement (with both subject and object arguments ), tense , mood , and inversion . Two different sets, or orders , of verbal affixes are used depending on

561-476: Is joined by the northeast branch. The Northeast Toulnustouc River is fed by the Petit lac Manicouagan , and flows southeast and then south before turning west into Lac Caron. The Cartier Railway runs beside it for most of its length. The combined Toulnustouc River flows SSE through Lac Fortin and Lac Bouffard and south to Lake Sainte-Anne, a reservoir. From there it flows southwest past Lac Fléché and south into

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612-477: Is that construction of required electric transmission lines would hinder the Innu's hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle : Chief Georges-Ernest Grégoire of the Innu community in Eastern Quebec urged the governor not to proceed with a plan to buy hydroelectric power from Canada, saying the dam complex that would be built would affect the traditional way of life for his people. Chief Grégoire's comments at

663-402: Is used for the Innu, members of the large Cree-language family. The plural form of "Innut / Innuat / Ilnuatsh" has been abandoned. The people are frequently classified by the geography of their primary locations: The word Naskapi was first recorded by French colonists in the 17th century. They applied it to distant Innu groups who were beyond the reach of Catholic missionary influence. It

714-493: The Atikamekw ( Nēhinawēwin and Nehirâmowin ) of the Atikamekw ( Nehiraw , Nehirowisiw ) in the upper Saint-Maurice River valley of Quebec . Innu-aimun is divided into four dialects – Southern Montagnais (Mashteuiatsh, Betsiamites), Eastern Montagnais (Ekuanitshit, Nutashkuan, Unamen Shipu, Pakuashipi), Central Montagnais (Uashat and Maliotenam, Matimekosh) and Labrador-Montagnais (Sheshatshit). The speakers of

765-542: The Catholic , Moravian , and Anglican churches, all encouraged the Innu to settle in more permanent, majority-style communities, in the belief that their lives would improve with this adaptation. This coercive assimilation resulted in the Innue giving up some traditional activities (hunting, trapping , fishing). Because of these social disruptions and the systemic disadvantages faced by Indigenous peoples, community life in

816-536: The French colonial period (French for " mountain people ", English pronunciation: / ˌ m ɔː n t ə n ˈ j ɛ / ), are the Indigenous Canadians who inhabit the territory in the northeastern portion of the present-day province of Labrador and some portions of Quebec . They refer to their traditional homeland as Nitassinan ("Our Land", ᓂᑕᔅᓯᓇᓐ) or Innu-assi ("Innu Land"). The ancestors of

867-595: The Iroquois Confederacy (known as Haudenosaunee . During the Beaver Wars (1609–1701), the Iroquois repeatedly invaded the Innu territories from their homelands south of the Great Lakes . They took women and young males as captive slaves, and plundered their hunting grounds in search of more furs. Since these raids were made by the Iroquois with unprecedented brutality, the Innu themselves adopted

918-430: The buckskin shirts with ones made of cloth. Most still wore boots and pants made from caribou hide. Women wore long dresses of buckskin. Contemporary Innu women have often replaced these with manufactured pants and jackets. Women traditionally wore their hair long or in two coils. Men wore theirs long. Both genders wore necklaces made of bone and bead. Smoke pipes were used by both genders, marked for women as shorter. If

969-720: The French colonial era as Montagnais ), is spoken throughout Nitassinan, with certain dialect differences. It is part of the Cree –Montagnais– Naskapi dialect continuum , and is unrelated to the Inuit languages of other nearby peoples. The "Innu / Ilnu" consist of two regional tribal groups, with the Innus of Nutashkuan being the southernmost group and the Naskapi being the northernmost group. Both groups differ in dialect and partly also in their way of life and culture. These differences include: Both groups are still called "Montagnais" in

1020-435: The French in the 16th century, became a staple and Indigenous bannock is still eaten today. Meat was eaten frozen, raw or roasted, and caribou was sometimes boiled in a stew. Pemmican was made with moose or caribou. Plants traditionally eaten included raspberries, blueberries, strawberries, cherries, wild grapes , hazelnuts , crab apples, red martagon bulbs, Indian potato , and maple-tree sap for sweetening. Cornmeal

1071-609: The Great Lakes in present-day New York and Pennsylvania. On July 29, 1609, at Ticonderoga or Crown Point, New York , (historians are not sure which of these two places), Champlain and his party encountered a group of Iroquois, likely Mohawk , who were the easternmost tribe of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. A battle began the next day. As two hundred Iroquois advanced on Champlain's position,

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1122-484: The Innu accepted. Two distinct versions of the oral history describe the outcome. In the first, the French used gifts of farmed food and manufactured goods to encourage the Innu to become dependent on them. Then, the French changed it to a mercantile relationship: trading these items to the Innu in exchange for furs. When the nomadic Innu went inland for the winter, the French increased the size and population of their settlement considerably, eventually completely displacing

1173-405: The Innu. The second, and more widespread, version of the oral history describes a more immediate conflict. In this version, the Innu taught the French how to survive in their traditional lands. Once the French had learned enough to survive on their own, they began to resent the Innu. The French began to attack the Innu, who retaliated in an attempt to reclaim their ancestral territory. The Innu had

1224-581: The Montagnais-Naksapi were encountered by Europeans early in the seventeenth century while the northern ones, except for some on James Bay, were not well known until the nineteenth century. The following are bands of the Montagnais-Naksapi in the 17th century: By 1850, the Chisedec, Oumamiwek, and Papinachois had disappeared or been renamed, and many new bands in the north of Nitassinan were discovered: The Innu of Labrador and those living on

1275-669: The Naskapi Montagnais Innu Association in 1976 to protect their rights, lands, and way of life against industrialization and other outside forces. The organization changed its name to the Innu Nation in 1990 and functions today as the governing body of the Labrador Innu. The group has won recognition for its members as status Indians under Canada's Indian Act in 2002 and is currently involved in land claim and self-governance negotiations with

1326-638: The Naskapi, split off from the tribe in the 1900s. They were subject to a government relocation program at Davis Inlet . Some of the families of the Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach have close relatives in the Cree village of Whapmagoostui , on the eastern shore of Hudson Bay . Since 1990, the Montagnais people have generally chosen to be officially referred to as the Innu , which means human being in Innu-aimun . The Naskapi have continued to use

1377-491: The Réservoir Manic 2, which is also fed by the Manicouagan River. A hydroelectric project on the river below Lake Sainte-Anne began in 2001. The Toulnustouc generating station (capacity of 526 MW) has been operational since 2005. The Toulnustouc River was used for logging by Quebec North Shore Paper (now Produits Forestier Résolu). On 23 May 1962, a landslide causes the death of nine loggers who were carried into

1428-441: The dolls with tea and gave them to young girls to carry on long journeys. The girls could play with the dolls while also carrying important goods. Every able-bodied person carried something. Men generally carried the heavier bags and women would carry young children. Men wore caribou pants and boots with a buckskin long shirt, all made by women. With the introduction of trade cloth from the French and English, people began replacing

1479-624: The federal and provincial governments. In addition to the Innu Nation, residents at both Natuashish and Sheshatshiu elect Band Councils to represent community concerns. The chiefs of both councils sit on the Innu Nation's board of directors and the three groups work in cooperation with one another. The Innu Nation's efforts to raise awareness about the environmental impacts of a mining project in Voisey's Bay were documented in Marjorie Beaucage 's 1997 film Ntapueu ... i am telling

1530-416: The hides and many of the products made from it. They scraped the hides to remove all fur, then left them outside to freeze. The next step was to stretch the hide on a frame. They rubbed it with a mixture of animal brain and pine needle tea to soften it. The dampened hide was formed into a ball and left overnight. In the morning, it would be stretched again, then placed over a smoker to smoke and tan it. The hide

1581-521: The inner bark of Abies balsamea (balsam fir) and eat it to benefit the diet. Traditional Innu craft is demonstrated in the Innu tea doll . These children's toys originally served a dual purpose for nomadic Innu tribes. When travelling vast distances over challenging terrain, the people left nothing behind. They believed that "Crow" would take it away. Everyone, including young children, helped to transport essential goods. Innu women made intricate dolls from caribou hides and scraps of cloth. They filled

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1632-516: The late 1970s, the Innu called it the "Kuetutnustuku Shipu" river, which means river parallel to the Manicouagan River. The Toulnustouc River flows through the unorganized territory of Rivière-aux-Outardes. The north branch, Rivière Toulnustouc Nord, leaves Dechêne Lake about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) east of the Manicouagan Reservoir . It flows southeast through Lac Bardoux and Lac Brûleé, then turns south to Lac Caron , where it

1683-512: The later solo careers of its founders Claude McKenzie and Florent Vollant . Widely heard hit songs with Innu-language lyrics have included " Ish-kuess " ("Girl"), " E Uassiuian " ("My Childhood"), " Tipatshimun " ("Story") and in particular " Akua tuta " ("Take care of yourself"), which appeared on soundtrack compilations for the television series Due South and the documentary Music for The Native Americans . The lyrics of Akua Tuta are featured on over 50 websites, making this one of

1734-439: The modern First Nations were known to have lived on these lands as hunter-gatherers for many thousands of years. To support their seasonal hunting migrations, they created portable tents made of animal skins. Their subsistence activities were historically centred on hunting and trapping caribou , moose , deer , and small game. Their language, which changed over time from Old Montagnais to Innu-aimun (popularly known since

1785-469: The most broadly accessible pieces of text written in any native North American language. Florent Vollant has also rendered several well-known Christmas carols into Innu in his 1999 album Nipaiamianan . In 2013, "a comprehensive pan-Innu dictionary, covering all the Innu dialects spoken in Quebec and Labrador [was] published in Innu, English and French ." Innu-aimun has the following phonemes (with

1836-404: The motives of the French explorers. The French asked permission to settle on the Innu's coastal land, which the Innu called Uepishtikueiau . This eventually developed as Quebec City . According to oral tradition, the Innu at first declined their request. The French demonstrated their ability to farm wheat on the land and promised they would share their bounty with the Innu in the future, which

1887-522: The north shore of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in the Canadian Shield region have never officially ceded their territory to Canada by way of treaty or other agreement. But, as European-Canadians began widespread forest and mining operations at the turn of the 20th century, the Innu became increasingly settled in coastal communities and in the interior of Quebec. The Canadian and provincial governments,

1938-484: The official language of Crown–Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada . The Naskapi ("people beyond the horizon", ᓇᔅᑲᐱ), who live further north, also identify as Innu or Iyiyiw . Today, about 28,960 people of Innu origin live in various Indian settlements and reserves in Quebec and Labrador. To avoid confusion with the Inuit , who belong to the Eskimoan peoples, today only the singular form "Innu / Ilnu"

1989-514: The permanent settlements often became associated with high levels of substance abuse , domestic violence , and suicide among the Innu. In 1999, Survival International published a study of the Innu communities of Labrador. It assessed the adverse effects of the Canadian government's relocating the people far from their ancestral lands and preventing them from practising their ancient way of life. The Innu people of Labrador formally organized

2040-583: The rate often observed in isolated northern villages. By 2000, the Innu island community of Davis Inlet asked the Canadian government to assist with a local addiction public health crisis. At their request, the community was relocated to a nearby mainland site, now known as Natuashish . At the same time, the Canadian government created the Natuashish and Sheshatshiu band councils under the Indian Act . Naskapi Nation of Kawawachikamach, Quebec, signed

2091-399: The river. Recreational fishing is practiced on the river, especially for speckled trout . The river's surroundings are used for various activities such as fishing, hunting, canoeing, boardwalking, motorcycling and snowmobiling. There are also many resort sites. Innu The Innu / Ilnu ("man", "person") or Innut / Innuat / Ilnuatsh ("people"), formerly called Montagnais from

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2142-476: The standard orthography equivalents in angle brackets, this section discusses the Sheshatshit dialect): The plosives are voiced to [b d dʒ ɡ ɡʷ] between vowels. /ʃ/ frequently merges with /h/ in younger speakers ( shīshīp [ʃiʃip ~ ʃihip ~ hihip] ' duck ' ). There are three pairs of so-called "long" and "short" vowels, and one long vowel with no short counterpart, though the length distinction

2193-482: The then Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador struck a deal on September 26, 2008, with Labrador's Innu to permit construction of Muskrat Falls Generating Station , a hydroelectric megaproject to proceed on the proposed Lower Churchill site. They also negotiated compensation for another project on the Upper Churchill, where large tracts of traditional Innu hunting lands were flooded. The Innu people grate

2244-405: The torment, torture, and cruelty of their enemies. The Naskapi, on the other hand, usually had to confront the southward advancing Inuit in the east of the peninsula. Innu oral tradition describes the original encounters of the Innu and the French explorers led by Samuel de Champlain as fraught with distrust. Neither group understood the language of the other, and the Innu were concerned about

2295-494: The truth. In the 1999 study of Innu communities in Labrador, Survival International concluded that government policies violated contemporary international law in human rights, and drew parallels with the treatment of Tibetans by the People's Republic of China. According to the study, from 1990 to 1997, the Innu community of Davis Inlet had a suicide rate more than twelve times the Canadian average , and well over three times

2346-553: The verb's syntactic context . In simple main clauses, the verb is marked using affixes of the independent order , whereas in subordinate clauses and content-word questions, affixes of the conjunct order are used. Innu-aimun is related to East Cree ( Īyiyū Ayimūn – Northern/Coastal dialect and Īnū Ayimūn – Southern/Inland dialect) spoken by the James Bay Cree of the James Bay region of Quebec and Ontario and

2397-569: The word Naskapi . About 3,700 members Over 23,000 members The Innu were possibly the group identified in Greenlandic Norse by Norsemen as Skrælings . They referred to Nitassinan as Markland . The Innu were historically allied with neighbouring Atikamekw , Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet) and Algonquin peoples against their enemies, the Algonquian-speaking Mi'kmaq and Iroquoian-speaking Five Nations of

2448-760: Was dependent on construction of a new dam complex and transmission lines that would have interfered with the traditional ways of the Innu. According to the Sierra Club : [t]he "New York Power Authority is in preliminary discussions and considering the liability of a new contract with Hydro Quebec ," a Canadian supplier of hydroelectricity. The Innu community, the Sierra Club, and the National Lawyers Guild are fighting to prevent this proposed contract, which would have to be approved by New York's Governor, under his regulatory authority. The problem

2499-666: Was left overnight. The finished hide was called buckskin. The oral traditions of the Innu are noted as similar to those of other Cree-speaking cultures. Of particular relevance is Tshakapesh , a lunar folk hero. The spirits they believed in are Caribou Master , Atshen , and Matshishkapeu . In traditional Innu communities, people walked or used snowshoes . While people still walk and use snowshoes where necessary for hunting or trapping, many Innu communities rely heavily on trucks, SUVs, and cars; in northern Innu communities, people use snowmobiles for hunting and general transportation. Innu-aimun Innu-aimun or Montagnais

2550-531: Was particularly applied to those people living in the lands that bordered Ungava Bay and the northern Labrador coast, near the Inuit communities of northern Quebec and northern Labrador. Gradually it came to refer to the people known today as the Naskapi First Nation. The Naskapi are traditionally nomadic peoples, in contrast with the more sedentary Montagnais , who establish settled territories. The Mushuau Innuat (plural), while related to

2601-441: Was traded with other First Nations peoples , such as the Iroquois, Algonquin, and Abenaki , and made into apon ( cornbread ), which sometimes also included oat or wheat flour when it became available. Pine needle tea was meant to keep away infections and colds resulting from the harsh weather. Traditionally, buckskin leather was a most important material used for clothing, boots, moccasins, house covers and storage. Women prepared

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