63-662: The Tonton Macoute ( Haitian Creole : Tonton Makout ) or simply the Macoute , was a Haitian paramilitary and secret police force created in 1959 by dictator François "Papa Doc" Duvalier . Haitians named this force after the Haitian mythological bogeyman , Tonton Macoute (" Uncle Gunnysack "), who kidnaps and punishes unruly children by snaring them in a gunny sack ( macoute ) before carrying them off to be consumed for breakfast. The Macoute were known for their brutality, state terrorism , and assassinations . In 1970,
126-571: A "tool of education". The Constitution of 1987 names both Haitian Creole and French as the official languages, but recognizes Haitian Creole as the only language that all Haitians hold in common. French is spoken by only a small percentage of citizens. Even without government recognition, by the end of the 19th century, there were already literary texts written in Haitian Creole such as Oswald Durand 's Choucoune and Georges Sylvain 's Cric? Crac! . Félix Morisseau-Leroy
189-698: A common use is for such household tasks as cutting large foodstuffs into pieces—much as a cleaver is used—or to perform crude cutting tasks, such as making simple wooden handles for other tools. It is common to see people using machetes for other jobs, such as splitting open coconuts , yard work, removing small branches and plants, chopping animals' food, and clearing bushes. Machetes are often considered tools and used by adults. However, many hunter–gatherer societies and cultures surviving through subsistence agriculture begin teaching babies to use sharp tools, including machetes, before their first birthdays. People in uprisings sometimes use these weapons. For example,
252-451: A daily basis and is often heard in ordinary conversation. There is a large population in Haiti that speaks only Haitian Creole, whether under formal or informal conditions: French plays no role in the very formal situation of a Haitian peasant (more than 80% of the population make a living from agriculture) presiding at a family gathering after the death of a member, or at the worship of
315-466: A dance called the dança dos facões (machetes' dance) in which the dancers, who are usually men, bang their machetes against various surfaces while dancing, simulating a battle. Maculelê , an Afro-Brazilian dance and martial art, can also be performed with facões . This practice began in the city of Santo Amaro, Bahia , in the northeastern part of the country. In the Philippines , the bolo
378-657: A military force that bore several names. In 1959, his paramilitary force was called the Cagoulards ("Hooded Men"). They were renamed to Milice Civile ( Civilian Militia ) and, after 1962, Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale ( Volunteers of the National Security , or VSN). They began to be called the Tonton Macoute when people started to disappear or were found killed for no apparent reason. This group answered to him only. Duvalier authorized
441-656: A name for the blow of a machete; the Spanish machetazo is sometimes used in English. In the British Virgin Islands , Grenada , Jamaica , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Barbados , Saint Lucia, and Trinidad and Tobago , the word planass means to hit someone with the flat of the blade of a machete or cutlass. To strike with the sharpened edge is to "chop". Throughout the English-speaking islands of
504-474: A result would try to learn French to communicate with one another, though most were denied a formal education. With the constant trafficking and enslavement of Africans, the language became increasingly distinct from French. The language was also picked up by other members of the community and became used by the majority of those born in what is now Haiti. In Saint-Domingue , people of all classes spoke Creole French . There were both lower and higher registers of
567-564: A similar pronunciation. Many towns, places or sites have their official name being a translation of the Taino word. Haitian Creole developed in the 17th and 18th centuries in the colony of Saint-Domingue , in a setting that mixed speakers of various Niger–Congo languages with French colonists. In the early 1940s under President Élie Lescot , attempts were made to standardize the language. American linguistic expert Frank Laubach and Irish Methodist missionary H. Ormonde McConnell developed
630-470: A standardized Haitian Creole orthography . Although some regarded the orthography highly, it was generally not well received. Its orthography was standardized in 1979. That same year Haitian Creole was elevated in status by the Act of 18 September 1979. The Institut Pédagogique National established an official orthography for Creole, and slight modifications were made over the next two decades. For example,
693-545: A white Frenchwoman for a wife. Tell her, if you please. We won't kill anymore whites, brothers, friends, and camarades of ours. Your son hugs you, my dear mother. Congo, free and independent Haitian, at Trou-Salé. Haitian Creole and French have similar pronunciations and also share many lexical items. However, many cognate terms actually have different meanings. For example, as Valdman mentions in Haitian Creole: Structure, Variation, Status, Origin ,
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#1732779562842756-567: Is a French-based creole language spoken by 10 to 12 million people worldwide, and is one of the two official languages of Haiti (the other being French), where it is the native language of the vast majority of the population. Northern, Central, and Southern dialects are the three main dialects of Haitian Creole. The Northern dialect is predominantly spoken in Cap-Haïtien , Central is spoken in Port-au-Prince , and Southern in
819-433: Is a broad blade used either as an agricultural implement similar to an axe , or in combat like a long-bladed knife . The blade is typically 30 to 66 centimetres (12 to 26 in) long and usually under 3 millimetres ( 1 ⁄ 8 in) thick. In the Spanish language , the word is possibly a diminutive form of the word macho , which was used to refer to sledgehammers. Alternatively, its origin may be machaera ,
882-499: Is a variant used in East and Southern Africa . This name may be of Swahili etymology; not to be confused with the panga fish . The panga blade broadens on the backside and has a length of 41 to 46 cm (16 to 18 in). The upper inclined portion of the blade may be sharpened. Other similar tools include the parang and the golok (from Malaysia and Indonesia ); however, these tend to have shorter, thicker blades with
945-662: Is also spoken in regions that have received migration from Haiti, including other Caribbean islands, French Guiana , Martinique , France , Canada (particularly Quebec ) and the United States (including the U.S. state of Louisiana ). It is related to Antillean Creole , spoken in the Lesser Antilles , and to other French-based creole languages. The word creole comes from the Portuguese term crioulo , which means "a person raised in one's house" and from
1008-712: Is manufactured by Indústria de Material Bélico do Brasil ( IMBEL ). The machete was used as a weapon during the Mau Mau rebellion , in the Rwandan Genocide, and in South Africa , particularly in the 1980s and early 1990s when the former province of Natal was wracked by conflict between the African National Congress and the Zulu -nationalist Inkatha Freedom Party . Good machetes rely on
1071-423: Is not mutually intelligible with standard French, and it also has its own distinctive grammar. Some estimate that Haitians are the largest community in the world to speak a modern creole language , others estimate that more people speak Nigerian Pidgin . Haitian Creole's use in communities and schools has been contentious since at least the 19th century. Some Haitians view French as inextricably linked to
1134-400: Is often considered the high language and Haitian Creole as the low language in the diglossic relationship of these two languages in society. That is to say, for the minority of Haitian population that is bilingual, the use of these two languages largely depends on the social context: standard French is used more in public, especially in formal situations, whereas Haitian Creole is used more on
1197-425: Is similar in phonetic structure. The phrase-structure is another similarity between Haitian Creole and French but differs slightly in that it contains details from its African substratum language. Both Haitian Creole and French have also experienced semantic change : words that had a single meaning in the 17th century have changed or have been replaced in both languages. For example, " Ki jan ou rele? " ("What
1260-589: Is used in training in eskrima , the indigenous martial art of the Philippines. In the Jalisco region of Mexico , Los Machetes is a popular folk dance. This dance tells the story of cutting down sugar cane during the harvest. Los Machetes was created by Mexican farm workers who spent a great amount of time perfecting the use of the tool, the machete, for harvesting. Traditionally, real machetes are used while performing this dance. The panga or tapanga
1323-472: Is your name?") corresponds to the French " Comment vous appelez‑vous ? ". Although the average French speaker would not understand this phrase, every word in it is in fact of French origin: qui "who"; genre "manner"; vous "you", and héler "to call", but the verb héler has been replaced by appeler in modern French and reduced to a meaning of "to flag down". Lefebvre proposed
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#17327795628421386-496: The Tontons Macoute a kind of unearthly authority in the eyes of the public. From their methods to their choice of clothes, Vodou always played an important role in the paramilitary's actions. The Tonton Macoutes wore straw hats, blue denim shirts and dark glasses, and were armed with machetes and guns. Both their allusions to the supernatural and their physical presentations were used to instill fear and respect among
1449-592: The Tontons Macoutes to commit systematic violence, terrorism, and human rights abuses to suppress political opposition. They were responsible for unknown numbers of murders and rapes in Haiti . Political opponents often disappeared overnight, or were sometimes attacked in broad daylight. Tontons Macoutes stoned and burned people alive. Many times they put the corpses of their victims on display, often hung in trees for everyone to see and take as warnings against opposition. Family members who tried to remove
1512-614: The Boricua Popular Army are unofficially called macheteros because of the machete-wielding laborers of sugar cane fields of past Puerto Rico . Many of the killings in the 1994 Rwandan genocide were performed with machetes, and they were the primary weapon used by the Interahamwe militias there. Machetes were also a distinctive tool and weapon of the Haitian Tonton Macoute . In 1762,
1575-712: The British captured Havana in a lengthy siege during the Seven Years' War . Volunteer militiamen led by Pepe Antonio, a Guanabacoa councilman, were issued with machetes during the unsuccessful defense of the city. The machete was also the most iconic weapon during the independence wars in Cuba, although it saw limited battlefield use. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes , owner of the sugar refinery La Demajagua near Manzanillo , freed his slaves on 10 October 1868. He proceeded to lead them, armed with machetes, in revolt against
1638-491: The Caribbean , the term 'cutlass' refers to a laborers' cutting tool. The Brazilian Army 's Instruction Center on Jungle Warfare developed a machete-style knife with a blade 25 cm (10 in) in length and a very pronounced clip point . This machete is issued with a 13 cm (5 in) Bowie knife and a sharpening stone in the scabbard; collectively called a "jungle kit" ( Conjunto de Selva in Portuguese ); it
1701-668: The Cayes area. The language emerged from contact between French settlers and enslaved Africans during the Atlantic slave trade in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti ) in the 17th and 18th centuries. Although its vocabulary largely derives from 18th-century French, its grammar is that of a West African Volta-Congo language branch, particularly the Fongbe and Igbo languages. It also has influences from Spanish, English, Portuguese, Taíno, and other West African languages. It
1764-540: The Central Tano languages , and Bantu languages from Central Africa. Singler suggests that the number of Bantu speakers decreased while the number of Kwa speakers increased, with Gbe being the most dominant group. The first fifty years of Saint‑Domingue 's sugar boom coincided with emergent Gbe predominance in the French Caribbean . In the interval during which Singler hypothesizes the language evolved,
1827-648: The Latin creare , which means "to create, make, bring forth, produce, beget". In the New World , the term originally referred to Europeans born and raised in overseas colonies (as opposed to the European-born peninsulares ). To be "as rich as a Creole" at one time was a popular saying boasted in Paris during the colonial years of Haiti (then named Saint-Domingue ), for being the most lucrative colony in
1890-511: The griots , after it had been dropped for years by those with education. The Tonton Macoute were strongly influenced by Vodou tradition and adopted denim uniforms resembling clothing like that of Azaka Medeh , the patron of farmers. They carried and used machetes in symbolic reference to Ogun , a great general in Vodou tradition. Some of the most important members of the Tontons Macoute were Vodou leaders. This religious affiliation gave
1953-402: The hyphen (-) is no longer used, nor is the apostrophe. The only accent mark retained is the grave accent in ⟨è⟩ and ⟨ò⟩ . The Constitution of 1987 upgraded Haitian Creole to a national language alongside French. It classified French as the langue d'instruction or "language of instruction", and Creole was classified as an outil d'enseignement or
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2016-442: The multigraphs ⟨ch⟩ , ⟨ou⟩ , ⟨oun⟩ , and ⟨ui⟩ ). The Haitian Creole alphabet has no ⟨q⟩ or ⟨x⟩ ; when ⟨x⟩ is used in loanwords and proper nouns, it represents the sounds /ks/ , /kz/ , or /gz/ . (or à before an n) Machete A machete ( / m ə ˈ ʃ ɛ t i / ; Spanish pronunciation: [maˈtʃete] )
2079-407: The 17th century, French and Spanish colonizers produced tobacco , cotton , and sugar cane on the island. Throughout this period, the population was made of roughly equal numbers of engagés (white workers), gens de couleur libres (free people of colour) and slaves. The economy shifted more decisively into sugar production about 1690, just before the French colony of Saint-Domingue
2142-555: The 1990s was the Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti (FRAPH), which Toronto Star journalist Linda Diebel described as modern Tonton Macoutes , and not the legitimate political party it claimed to be. Led by Emmanual Constant, FRAPH differed from the Tonton Macoute in its denial to submit to the will of a single authority and its cooperation with regular military forces. FRAPH extended its reach far outside that of
2205-546: The English-speaking Caribbean, Robert Mole & Sons of Birmingham, England, was long considered the manufacturer of agricultural cutlasses of the best quality. Some Robert Mole blades survive as souvenirs of travellers to Trinidad, Jamaica, and, less commonly, St. Lucia. Colombia is the largest exporter of machetes worldwide. The flag of Angola features a machete, along with a cog-wheel . The southern Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul has
2268-535: The Fongbe language, is a modern Gbe language native to Benin , Nigeria and Togo in West Africa . This language has a grammatical structure similar to Haitian Creole, possibly making Creole a relexification of Fon with vocabulary from French. The two languages are often compared: There are a number of Taino influences in Haitian Creole; many objects, fruit and animal names are either haitianized or have
2331-569: The Gbe population was around 50% of the kidnapped enslaved population. Classical French ( français classique ) and langues d'oïl ( Norman , Poitevin and Saintongeais dialects, Gallo and Picard ) were spoken during the 17th and 18th centuries in Saint‑Domingue , as well as in New France and French West Africa . Slaves lacked a common means of communication and as
2394-838: The Haitian state and had offices present in New York City , Montreal , and Miami until its disarmament and disbandment in 1994. Wolfen - in the film Wolfen(1981) the bodyguard that is killed by the Wolfen at the beginning of the film is referred to as being tough and formerly of the Tonton Macoute Haitian Creole language Haitian Creole ( / ˈ h eɪ ʃ ən ˈ k r iː oʊ l / ; Haitian Creole: kreyòl ayisyen , [kɣejɔl ajisjɛ̃] ; French: créole haïtien , [kʁe.ɔl a.i.sjɛ̃] ), or simply Creole (Haitian Creole: kreyòl ),
2457-459: The Hospital could not supply bodies, he used local funeral homes. In 1971, after Duvalier died, his widow Simone and son Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier ordered Cambronne into exile. Cambronne moved to Miami , Florida , US, where he lived until his death in 2006. When François Duvalier came to power in 1957, Vodou was becoming celebrated as authentic Haitian culture by intellectuals and
2520-681: The Spanish government. The first cavalry charge using machetes as the primary weapon was carried out on 4 November 1868 by Máximo Gómez , a sergeant born in the Dominican Republic , who later became the general in chief of the Cuban Army . The machete is a common side arm and tool for many ethnic groups in West Africa . Machetes in this role are referenced in Chinua Achebe 's Things Fall Apart . Some countries have
2583-2219: The blow from the hurricane put me in the position of getting it refitted again. The Entrepreneur. Is it taking on a lot of water? The Captain. The first days after the storm, we took on thirty six inches in twenty four hours; but in clear weather I made them take as much of it out as I was able, and attached it the best we possibly could; we're presently taking on not even thirteen inches. Haïti, l'an 1er, 5e, jour de l'indépendance. Chère maman moi, Ambassadeurs à nous, partis pour chercher argent France, moi voulé écrire à vous par yo, pour dire vous combien nous contens. Français bons, oublié tout. Papas nous révoltés contre yo, papas nous tués papas yo, fils yo, gérens yo, papas nous brûlées habitations yo. Bagasse, eux veni trouver nous! et dis nous, vous donner trente millions de gourdes à nous et nous laisser Haïti vous? Vous veni acheter sucre, café, indigo à nous? mais vous payer moitié droit à nous. Vous penser chère maman moi, que nous accepté marché yo. Président à nous embrassé bon papa Makau. Yo bu santé roi de France, santé Boyer , santé Christophe , santé Haïti, santé indépendance. Puis yo dansé Balcindé et Bai chi ca colé avec Haïtienes. Moi pas pouvé dire vous combien tout ça noble et beau. Venir voir fils à vous sur habitation, maman moi, li donné vous cassave, gouillave et pimentade. Li ben content si pouvez mener li blanche france pour épouse. Dis li, si ben heureuse. Nous plus tuer blancs, frères, amis, et camarades à nous. Fils à vous embrasse vous, chère maman moi. Congo, Haïtien libre et indépendant, au Trou-Salé. Haiti, 1st year, 5th day of independence. My dear mother, Our ambassadors left to get money from France, I want to write to you through them, to tell you how much we are happy. The French are good, they forgot everything. Our fathers revolted against them, our fathers killed their fathers, sons, managers, and our fathers burned down their plantations. Well, they came to find us, and told us, "you give thirty million gourdes to us and we'll leave Haiti to you? (And we replied) Will you come buy sugar, coffee, and indigo from us? You will pay only half directly to us." Do you believe my dear mother, that we accepted
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2646-557: The bodies for proper burial often disappeared. Anyone who challenged the VSN risked assassination. Their unrestrained state terrorism was accompanied by corruption, extortion, and personal aggrandizement among the leadership. The victims of Tontons Macoutes could range from a woman in the poorest of neighborhoods who had previously supported an opposing politician to a businessman who refused to comply with extortion threats (ostensibly taken as donations for public works, but which were in fact
2709-444: The common people, including any opposition actors. Their title of Tonton Macoute was embedded in Haitian lore of a bogeyman who took children away in his sack, or Makoute. The Tontons Macoute were a ubiquitous presence at the polls in 1961, when Duvalier held a presidential referendum in which the official vote count was an "outrageous" and fraudulent 1,320,748 to 0 , electing him to another term. They appeared in force again at
2772-508: The country's debts. This continued until the Tonton Macoute was left on its own when "Baby Doc" fled the country with an estimated $ 900 million. The Tonton Macoute remained active even after the presidency of Baby Doc ended in 1986, at the height of the Anti-Duvalier protest movement . Massacres led by paramilitary groups spawned from the r-Macoutes continued during the following decade. The most feared paramilitary group during
2835-469: The country's newly instated "Creole Day". Haitian Creole writers often use different literary strategies throughout their works, such as code-switching, to increase the audience's knowledge on the language. Literature in Haitian Creole is also used to educate the public on the dictatorial social and political forces in Haiti. Although both French and Haitian Creole are official languages in Haiti , French
2898-541: The deal? Our President hugged the good papa Makau (the French ambassador). They drank to the health of the King of France , to the health of Boyer , to the health of Christophe , to the health of Haiti, to independence. Then they danced Balcindé and Bai chi ca colé with Haitian women. I can't tell you how much all of this is so beautiful and noble. Come see your son at his plantation, my mother, he will give you cassava, goyava, and pimentade. He will be happy if you can bring him
2961-404: The earthquake in 2010, basic education became free and more accessible to the monolingual masses. In the 2010s, the government has attempted to expand the use of Creole and improve the school system. Haitian Creole has a phonemic orthography with highly regular spelling, except for proper nouns and foreign words. According to the official standardized orthography, Haitian Creole is composed of
3024-411: The education system has been French-dominant. Except the children of elites, many had to drop out of school because learning French was very challenging to them and they had a hard time to follow up. The Bernard Reform of 1978 tried to introduce Creole as the teaching language in the first four years of primary school; however, the reform overall was not very successful. The use of Creole has grown; after
3087-449: The family lwa or voodoo spirits, or contacting a Catholic priest for a church baptism, marriage, or solemn mass, or consulting a physician, nurse, or dentist, or going to a civil officer to declare a death or birth. In most schools, French is still the preferred language for teaching. Generally speaking, Creole is more used in public schools, as that is where most children of ordinary families who speak Creole attend school. Historically,
3150-814: The following 32 symbols: ⟨a⟩ , ⟨an⟩ , ⟨b⟩ , ⟨ch⟩ , ⟨d⟩ , ⟨e⟩ , ⟨è⟩ , ⟨en⟩ , ⟨f⟩ , ⟨g⟩ , ⟨h⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨j⟩ , ⟨k⟩ , ⟨l⟩ , ⟨m⟩ , ⟨n⟩ , ⟨ng⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ò⟩ , ⟨on⟩ , ⟨ou⟩ , ⟨oun⟩ , ⟨p⟩ , ⟨r⟩ , ⟨s⟩ , ⟨t⟩ , ⟨ui⟩ , ⟨v⟩ , ⟨w⟩ , ⟨y⟩ , and ⟨z⟩ . The letters ⟨c⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are always associated with another letter (in
3213-922: The language, depending on education and class. Creole served as a lingua franca throughout the West Indies . L'Entrepreneur. Mo sorti apprend, Mouché, qué vou té éprouvé domage dan traversée. Le Capitaine. Ça vrai. L'Entr. Vou crére qué navire à vou gagné bisoin réparations? Le C. Ly té carené anvant nou parti, mai coup z'ouragan là mété moué dan cas fair ly bay encor nion radoub. L'Entr. Ly fair d'iau en pile? Le C. Primié jours aprés z'orage, nou té fair trente-six pouces par vingt-quatre heurs; mai dan beau tem mo fair yo dégagé ça mo pu, et tancher miyor possible, nou fair à présent necqué treize pouces. The Entrepreneur. I just learned, sir, that you garnered damages in your crossing. The Captain. That's true. The Entrepreneur. Do you believe that your ship needs repair? The Captain. It careened before we left, but
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#17327795628423276-442: The legacy of colonialism and language compelled on the population by conquerers, while Creole has been maligned by francophones as a miseducated person's French. Until the late 20th century, Haitian presidents spoke only standard French to their fellow citizens, and until the 21st century, all instruction at Haitian elementary schools was in modern standard French, a second language to most of their students. Haitian Creole
3339-542: The materials used and the shape. In the past, the most famous manufacturer of machetes in Latin America and the Spanish-speaking Caribbean was Collins Company of Collinsville , Connecticut . The company was founded as Collins & Company in 1826 by Samuel W. Collins to make axes . Its first machetes were sold in 1845 and became so famous that a machete was called un collin . In
3402-563: The militia was renamed the Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale ( VSN , English: National Security Volunteers ). Though formally disbanded in 1986, its members continued to terrorize the country. After the July 1958 Haitian coup attempt against President François Duvalier , he purged the army and law enforcement agencies in Haiti and executed numerous officers perceived to be a threat to his regime. To counteract such activity, he created
3465-651: The name given by the Greeks and Romans to the falcata . It is the origin of the English language equivalent term matchet , though this is rarely used. In much of the English-speaking Caribbean, such as Jamaica, Barbados, Guyana, Grenada, and Trinidad and Tobago, the term cutlass is used for these agricultural tools. In various tropical and subtropical countries, the machete is frequently used to cut through rainforest undergrowth and for agricultural purposes (e.g. cutting sugar cane ). Besides this, in Latin America
3528-524: The polls in 1964, when Duvalier held a constitutional referendum that declared him president for life . From 1985, the United States began to stop funding aid to Haiti, cutting nearly a million dollars within a year. Nonetheless, the Baby Doc regime pushed forward and even had a national party for the Tontons Macoute . Tonton Macoute day was 29 July 1985; among the festivities, the group
3591-646: The source of profit for corrupt officials and even President Duvalier). The Tontons Macoutes murdered between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians. Luckner Cambronne led the Tontons Macoute throughout the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. His cruelty earned him the nickname "Vampire of the Caribbean". He extorted blood plasma from locals for sale for his profit. Cambronne did this through his company "Hemocaribian"; he shipped five tons of plasma per month to US Labs. He also sold cadavers to medical schools after buying them from Haitian hospitals for $ 3 per corpse. When
3654-415: The theory of relexification , arguing that the process of relexification (the replacement of the phonological representation of a substratum lexical item with the phonological representation of a superstratum lexical item, so that the Haitian creole lexical item looks like French, but works like the substratum language(s)) was central in the development of Haitian Creole. The Fon language , also known as
3717-422: The word for "frequent" in French is fréquent ; however, its cognate in Haitian Creole frekan means 'insolent, rude, and impertinent' and usually refers to people. In addition, the grammars of Haitian Creole and French are very different. For example, in Haitian Creole, verbs are not conjugated as they are in French. Additionally, Haitian Creole possesses different phonetics from standard French; however, it
3780-507: The world. The noun Creole , soon began to refer to the language spoken there as well, as it still is today. Haitian Creole contains elements from both the Romance group of Indo-European languages through its superstrate , French , as well as influences from African languages . There are many theories on the formation of the Haitian Creole language. One theory estimates that Haitian Creole developed between 1680 and 1740. During
3843-462: Was another influential author of Haitian Creole work. Since the 1980s, many educators, writers, and activists have written literature in Haitian Creole. In 2001, Open Gate: An Anthology of Haitian Creole Poetry was published. It was the first time a collection of Haitian Creole poetry was published in both Haitian Creole and English. On 28 October 2004, the Haitian daily Le Matin first published an entire edition in Haitian Creole in observance of
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#17327795628423906-459: Was bestowed new uniforms and was honored by all of Baby Doc's cabinet. In the exuberance, the Tonton Macoute went out into the streets and shot 27 people for the national party. The lack of funds going to the Tonton Macoute was a result of those funds being intercepted by the Duvalier dynasty . It sometimes took nearly 80 percent of international aid to Haiti, but paid only 45 percent of
3969-490: Was officially recognized in 1697. The sugar crops needed a much larger labor force, which led to an increase in slave trafficking . In the 18th century an estimated 800,000 West Africans were enslaved and brought to Saint-Domingue. As the slave population increased, the proportion of French-speaking colonists decreased. Many African slaves in the colony had come from Niger-Congo -speaking territory, and particularly speakers of Kwa languages , such as Gbe from West Africa and
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