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57-543: The Reform began with land reform , based on Confucian ideas and philosophies from Tang China , but the true aim of the reforms was to bring about greater centralization and to enhance the power of the imperial court, which was also based on the governmental structure of China. Envoys and students were dispatched to China to learn seemingly everything from the Chinese writing system , literature , religion , and architecture , to even dietary habits at this time. Even today,

114-625: A major part in compiling these edicts which in essence founded the Japanese imperial system and government. The ruler according to these edicts was no longer a clan leader but Emperor (in Japanese, Tennō ), who exercised absolute authority. The reform was much inspired by the Japanese missions to China in the Sui and Tang dynasties, and sought to emulate China's system of centralized imperial control and Confucianism . From today's vantage point,

171-571: A population density of 1,300 persons per km . There were 160,242 households residing in Nara. The highest concentration of both households and population, respectively about 46,000 and 125,000, is found along the newer bedtown districts, along the Kintetsu line connecting to Osaka . There were about 3,000 registered foreigners in the city, of which Koreans and Chinese are the two largest groups with about 1,200 and 800 people respectively. According to

228-525: A reactionary expression to the political centralization of China, the city of Nara (Heijō) was modeled after the Tang capital at Chang’an . Nara was laid out on a grid—which was based upon the Handen system —whereby the city was divided by four great roads. Likewise, according to Chinese cosmology, the ruler's place was fixed like the pole star. By dominating the capital, the ruler brought heaven to earth. Thus,

285-619: A time of penal and administrative legal order. The Taihō Code called for the establishment of administrative sects underneath the central government, and modeled many of the codes from the Chinese Tang dynasty. The code eventually disbanded, but its contents were largely preserved in the Yōrō Code of 718. Occupants of the throne during the period gradually shifted their focus from military preparation to religious rites and institutions, in an attempt to strengthen their divine authority over

342-786: A village community. Different people in a family or community had different rights to access this land for different purposes and at different times. Such rights were often conveyed through oral history and not formally documented. These different ideas of land ownership and tenure are sometimes referred to using different terminology. For example, "formal" or "statutory" land systems refer to ideas of land control more closely affiliated with individual land ownership. "Informal" or "customary" land systems refer to ideas of land control more closely affiliated with land tenure. Terms dictating control over and use of land can therefore take many forms. Some specific examples of present-day or historic forms of formal and informal land ownership include: Land reform

399-464: Is 276.84 km (106.89 sq mi). Nara city, as well as several important settlements (such as Kashihara , Yamatokōriyama , Tenri , Yamatotakada , Sakurai and Gose ), are located in the Nara Basin . This makes it the most densely-populated region of Nara Prefecture. The downtown of Nara is on the east side of the ancient Heijō Palace site, occupying the northern part of what

456-566: Is a commonly cited example of the perils of such large-scale reforms, whereby land redistribution contributed to economic decline and increased food insecurity in the country. In cases where land reform has been enacted as part of socialist collectivization , many of the arguments against collectivization more generally apply. An early example of land reform was the Irish Land Acts of 1870–1909. Most all newly independent countries of Eastern and Central Europe implemented land reforms in

513-507: Is a deeply political process and therefore many arguments for and against it have emerged. These arguments vary tremendously over time and place. In the twentieth century, many land reforms emerged from a particular political ideology, such as communism or socialism. In the 19th century in colonized states, a colonial government may have changed the laws dictating land ownership to better consolidate political power or to support its colonial economy. In more recent times, electoral mobilization and

570-546: Is a form of agrarian reform involving the changing of laws, regulations, or customs regarding land ownership . Land reform may consist of a government-initiated or government-backed property redistribution , generally of agricultural land. Land reform can, therefore, refer to transfer of ownership from the more powerful to the less powerful, such as from a relatively small number of wealthy or noble owners with extensive land holdings (e.g., plantations, large ranches, or agribusiness plots) to individual ownership by those who work

627-472: Is among the heaviest in Japan and indeed in the world outside the equatorial zone. Spring and fall temperatures are temperate and comfortable. The mountainous region of Yoshino has been long popular for viewing cherry blossoms in the spring. In autumn, the southern mountains are also a popular destination for viewing fall foliage. As of April 1, 2017 , the city has an estimated population of 359,666 and

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684-536: Is an intensely political process. Thus, many of those opposed to land reform are nervous as to the underlying motivations of those initiating the reform. For example, some may fear that they will be disadvantaged or victimized as a result of the reforms. Others may fear that they will lose out in the economic and political power struggles (especially in under developed countries) that underlie many land reforms. Other groups and individuals express concerns about land reforms focused on formalization of property rights. While

741-561: Is modification or replacement of existing institutional arrangements governing possession and use of land. Thus, while land reform may be radical in nature, such as through large-scale transfers of land from one group to another, it can also be less dramatic, such as regulatory reforms aimed at improving land administration. Nonetheless, any revision or reform of a country's land laws can still be an intensely political process, as reforming land policies serves to change relationships within and between communities, as well as between communities and

798-576: The Heijō Palace , together with Kasugayama Primeval Forest , collectively form the Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . By the Heian period , a variety of different characters had been used to represent the name Nara: 乃楽 , 乃羅 , 平 , 平城 , 名良 , 奈良 , 奈羅 , 常 , 那良 , 那楽 , 那羅 , 楢 , 諾良 , 諾楽 , 寧 , 寧楽 and 儺羅 . A number of theories for

855-749: The Taihō (Great Law) Code written in 702, consisting of criminal and administrative laws modeled after Tang China, leading to the ritsuryō system. New offices created include that of the Daijō daijin (chancellor), who presided over the Dajōkan (Grand Council of State), which included the Minister of the Left , the Minister of the Right , eight central government ministries, and a prestigious Ministry of Deities . Locally,

912-505: The Unification Church . The city of Nara lies in the northern end of Nara Prefecture , directly bordering Kyoto Prefecture to its north. The city is 22.22 km (13.81 mi) from North to South, from East to West. As a result of the latest merger, effective April 1, 2005, that combined the villages of Tsuge and Tsukigase with the city of Nara, the city now borders Mie Prefecture directly to its east. The total area

969-770: The Edo and Meiji periods to a modern tourist city, due to its large number of historical temples, landmarks and national monuments. Nara was added to the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in December 1998. The architecture of some shops, ryokans and art galleries has been adapted from traditional merchant houses. Nara holds traditional festivals every year, including the Neri-Kuyo Eshiki, a spring festival held in Todaiji temple for over 1,000 years; and

1026-539: The Edo period, during which several visitors' maps of Nara were widely published. During the Meiji Period, the Kofukuji Temple lost some land and its monks were converted into Shinto priests, due to Buddhism being associated with the old shogunate. Although Nara was the capital of Japan from 710 to 794, it was not designated a city until 1 February 1898. Nara has since developed from a town of commerce in

1083-543: The Imperial Prince Naka no Ōe , issued a series of reform measures that culminated in the Taika Reform Edicts in 646. At this time, two scholars, Takamuko no Kuromaro and priest Min (who had both accompanied Ono no Imoko in travels to Sui China , where they stayed for more than a decade), were assigned to the position of Kuni no Hakase (国博士; National doctorate). They were likely to take

1140-540: The Kemari Festival, in which people wear costumes ranging across 700 years and play traditional games). In 1909, Tatsuno Kingo designed the Nara Hotel , whose architecture combined modern elements with traditional Japanese style. At a 2022 campaign event in Nara, former Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe was shot and killed with a homemade firearm by Tetsuya Yamagami , who resented Abe's ties to

1197-476: The Taika Reform is seen as a coherent system in which a great many inherently dissonant factors have been harmonized, but the changes unfolded in a series of successive steps over the course of many years. The major objective was to reassert imperial authority through reorganizing the government, including abolishing the kabane hereditary title system previously in place. A major reform on the law include

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1254-541: The aftermath of World War I . In most countries, the land in excess of certain limits (20–500 ha (49–1,236 acres), depending on the region and type of land) was expropriated; in Finland , it was redeemed and placed into a special fund. Nara, Nara Nara ( 奈良市 , Nara-shi , [naꜜɾa] ) is the capital city of Nara Prefecture , Japan . As of 2022 , Nara has an estimated population of 367,353 according to World Population Review, making it

1311-487: The city of Nara. Nara Women's University is one of only two national women's universities in Japan. Nara Institute of Science and Technology is a graduate research university specializing in biological, information, and materials sciences. Public elementary and junior high schools are operated by the city of Nara. Public high schools are operated by the Nara Prefecture. Private high schools in Nara include

1368-499: The country was reorganized into 66 imperial provinces and 592 counties, with appointed governors . Subjects were to be surveyed, land was to be nationalized and redistributed, and private weapons were to be stored in government armories. A land tax, military service and labor obligations were instituted on subjects. A permanent capital was also established in Nara , emulating the grid system of Tang China 's capital Xi'an . An exam system

1425-456: The court to relocate to the new capital, Nara. Once known as Heijō or Heijō-kyō , the city was established as Japan's first permanent capital in 710 CE; it was the seat of government until 784 CE, albeit with a five-year interruption, lasting from 741 to 745 CE. Heijō, as the ‘penultimate court’, however, was abandoned by the order of Emperor Kammu in 784 CE in favor of the temporary site of Nagaoka , and then Heian-kyō (Kyoto) which retained

1482-416: The court. Those who were against Soga's dictatorship included the emperor's brother Karu , the emperor's son, Prince Naka no Ōe , along with his friend Nakatomi no Kamatari , and his son-in-law Soga no Ishikawamaro (Iruka's cousin). They ended Iruka's regime by a coup d'état in 645 ( Isshi Incident ). As Kōgyoku renounced her throne, Karu ascended to be Emperor Kōtoku . The new emperor, together with

1539-512: The deer lack fiber and other nutrients deer require, so when the deer eat too many rice crackers it causes the gut microbiome in the deer to become unbalanced, among other problems. 7 out of 8 deer dissected had a “kidney fat index” (which measures how much fat has attached to the kidneys) below 40%, which indicates malnutrition in the deer. And of those 7, some had kidney fat below 10%, which indicates starvation. Compared to male shika deer outside of Nara park, which weigh about 50 kilograms on average,

1596-459: The deer. Some deer have learned to bow in order to receive senbei from people. A 2009 study by Harumi Torii (who is the assistant professor of wildlife management at Nara University of Education,) in which necropsies of deceased shika deer in Nara park were conducted, found that the deer in Nara park were malnourished from not having enough grass to eat, and eating too many rice crackers and other human food. The rice crackers commonly fed to

1653-692: The economic and pro-poor benefits of increased formalized land rights are still inconclusive according to some critics (see "Arguments against land reform" below). Other arguments in support of land reform point to the need to alleviate conflicting land laws, particularly in former colonies, where formal and informal land systems may exist in tension with each other. Such conflicts can make marginalized groups vulnerable to further exploitation. For example, in many countries in Africa with conflicting land laws, AIDS stigmatization has led to an increasing number of AIDS widows being kicked off marital land by in-laws. While

1710-583: The economic and social benefits of formalized land rights are often touted, some research suggests that such reforms are either ineffective or may cause further hardship or conflict. Additional arguments against land reform focus on concerns over equity issues and potential elite capture of land, particularly in regards to reforms focused on greater land formalization. If improperly or inadequately implemented, critics worry that such reforms may further disadvantage marginalized groups such as indigenous communities or women. These concerns also lead to questions about

1767-437: The great owners, who must lose their land in an upheaval, the great owners with access to history, with eyes to read history and to know the great fact: when property accumulates in too few hands it is taken away. And that companion fact: when a majority of the people are hungry and cold they will take by force what they need. And the little screaming fact that sounds through all history: repression works only to strengthen and knit

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1824-568: The impact of the reforms can still be seen in contemporary Japanese cultural life. After the regency of Shōtoku Taishi ended, the Soga clan , from which Shōtoku's ancestry was derived, took hegemony of the Yamato court . The clan was opposed to Shōtoku's son Yamashiro Ōe and killed him in 643. Under the reign of Empress Kōgyoku the Soga clan head, Soga no Iruka , was virtually an almighty leader of

1881-507: The institutional capacity of governments to implement land reforms as they are designed. Even if a country does have this capacity, critics worry that corruption and patrimonialism will lead to further elite capture . In looking at more radical reforms, such as large-scale land redistribution, arguments against reform include concerns that redistributed land will not be used productively and that owners of expropriated land will not be compensated adequately or compensated at all. Zimbabwe, again,

1938-444: The land will be better stewards of it. Land reforms carried out in Japan, Taiwan and South Korea are credited with contributing to the industrial development. The equitable distribution of land led to increasing agricultural outputs, high rural purchasing power and social mobility. Many of the arguments in support of land reform speak to its potentially positive social and economic outcomes. Yet, as mentioned previously, land reform

1995-492: The land. Such transfers of ownership may be with or without compensation; compensation may vary from token amounts to the full value of the land. Land reform may also entail the transfer of land from individual ownership—even peasant ownership in smallholdings —to government-owned collective farms; it has also, in other times and places, referred to the exact opposite: division of government-owned collective farms into smallholdings. The common characteristic of all land reforms

2052-672: The largest city in Nara Prefecture and sixth-largest in the Kansai region of Honshu . Nara is a core city located in the northern part of Nara Prefecture bordering the Kyoto Prefecture . Nara was the capital of Japan during the Nara period from 710 to 794 as the seat of the Emperor before the capital was moved to Kyoto . Nara is home to eight temples, shrines, and ruins, specifically Tōdai-ji , Saidai-ji , Kōfuku-ji , Kasuga Shrine , Gangō-ji , Yakushi-ji , Tōshōdai-ji , and

2109-564: The legendary history of Kasuga Shrine , the god Takemikazuchi arrived in Nara on a white deer to guard the newly built capital of Heijō-kyō . Since then, the deer have been regarded as heavenly animals, protecting the city and the country. Tame sika deer (also known as spotted deer or Japanese deer) roam through the town, especially in Nara Park . In 2015, there were more than 1,200 sika deer in Nara. Snack vendors sell sika senbei (deer crackers ) to visitors so they can feed

2166-416: The like today, and it is regarded as the most likely. There are a number of megalithic tombs or kofun in Nara, including Gosashi Kofun , Hishiage Kofun ( ヒシアゲ古墳 ) , Horaisan Kofun ( 宝来山古墳 ) , Konabe Kofun ( コナベ古墳 ) , Saki Ishizukayama Kofun ( 佐紀石塚山古墳 ) , Saki Misasagiyama Kofun ( 佐紀陵山古墳 ) , and Uwanabe Kofun ( ウワナベ古墳 ) . By decree of an edict on March 11, 708 AD, Empress Genmei ordered

2223-631: The lowest is in Ikeda-cho district, with an altitude of 56.4 m (185.04 ft). The climate of Nara Prefecture is generally temperate, although there are notable differences between the north-western basin area and the rest of the prefecture which is more mountainous. The basin area climate has an inland characteristic, as represented in the higher daily temperature variance, and the difference between summer and winter temperatures. Winter temperatures average approximately 3 to 5 °C (37 to 41 °F), and from 25 to 28 °C (77 to 82 °F) in

2280-461: The male shika deer in Nara park only weigh 30 kilograms on average. The color of the femoral marrow in Nara park’s deer was also abnormal, indicating malnourishment. When living deer in Nara park were observed during the study, it was discovered that rice crackers made up about one third of the average deer’s diet in Nara park, with grass making up about two thirds. The deer have become so excessively numerous in Nara park, that there isn’t enough grass in

2337-429: The move of the political capital to Heian-kyō in 794, thus giving Nara a synonym of Nanto ( 南都 "the southern capital"). On December 2, 724 AD, in order to increase the visual "magnificence" of the city, an edict was ordered by the government for the noblemen and the wealthy to renovate the roofs, pillars, and walls of their homes, although at that time this was unfeasible. Sightseeing in Nara city became popular in

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2394-404: The origin of the name "Nara" have been proposed, and some of the better-known ones are listed here. The second theory in the list, from the notable folklorist Kunio Yanagita (1875–1962), is most widely accepted at present. The "flat land" theory is adopted by Nihon Kokugo Daijiten (the largest dictionary of Japanese language), various dictionaries for place names, history books on Nara, and

2451-455: The park for all of them to live entirely on grass, creating a dependency on humans for rice crackers. This lack of grass also causes the deer to resort to eating garbage and plants that they would not normally eat. The deer in Nara park have become overpopulated due to being fed by people frequently, and having few predators. And the deer have caused extensive damage to trees (by feeding on bark,) bamboo (by eating their shoots,) and other plants in

2508-454: The park. Additionally, the deer have become aggressive towards humans in their solicitation of food (which leads to people getting injured by deer,) aggressive towards each other in competition for rice crackers, and have lost their fear of predators in general. For these reasons, tourists may want to consider not feeding the deer in Nara park, and simply observe them instead. As of 2005 , there are 16 high schools and 6 universities located in

2565-415: The past several centuries to place greater emphasis on individual land ownership, formalized through documents such as land titles. Control over land may also be perceived less in terms of individual ownership and more in terms of land use , or through what is known as land tenure. Historically, in many parts of Africa for example, land was not owned by an individual, but rather used by an extended family or

2622-600: The poor in formal legal and economic systems, increase the poor's ability to access credit and contribute to economic growth and poverty reduction. Many international development organizations and bilateral and multilateral donors, such as the World Bank, have embraced de Soto's ideas, or similar ideas, about the benefits of greater formalized land rights. This has translated into a number of development programs that work with governments and civil society organizations to initiate and implement land reforms. Evidence to support

2679-468: The population. With the establishment of the new capital, Asuka-dera , the temple of the Soga clan , was relocated within Nara. The Emperor Shōmu ordered the construction of Tōdai-ji Temple (largest wooden building in the world) and the world's largest bronze Buddha statue. The temples of Nara, known collectively as the Nanto Shichi Daiji , remained spiritually significant even beyond

2736-706: The repressed. Arguments in support of such reforms gained particular momentum after the publication of The Mystery of Capital: Why Capitalism Triumphs in the West and Fails Everywhere Else by Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto in 2000. The poor, he argues, are often unable to secure formal property rights, such as land titles, to the land on which they live or farm because of poor governance, corruption and/or overly complex bureaucracies. Without land titles or other formal documentation of their land assets, they are less able to access formal credit. Political and legal reforms within countries, according to de Soto, will help to include

2793-456: The south-facing palace centered at the north, bisected the ancient city, instituting ‘Right Capital’ and ‘Left Capital’ zones. As Nara came to be a center of Buddhism in Japan and a prominent pilgrimage site, the city plan incorporated various pre-Heijō and Heijō period temples, of which the Yakushiji and the Todaiji still stand. A number of scholars have characterized the Nara period as

2850-600: The state. Thus even small-scale land reforms and legal modifications may be subject to intense debate or conflict. Land ownership and tenure can be perceived as controversial in part because ideas defining what it means to access or control land, such as through "land ownership" or "land tenure", can vary considerably across regions and even within countries. Land reforms, which change what it means to control land, therefore create tensions and conflicts between those who lose and those who gain from these redefinitions (see next section). Western conceptions of land have evolved over

2907-473: The status of capital for 1,100 years, until the Meiji Emperor made the final move to Edo in 1869 CE. This first relocation was due to the court's transformation from an imperial nobility to a force of metropolitan elites and new technique of dynastic shedding which had refashioned the relationship between court, nobility, and country. Moreover, the ancient capital lent its name to Nara period. As

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2964-522: The summer with highest readings reaching close to 35 °C (95 °F). There has not been a single year since 1990 with more than 10 days of snowfall recorded by Nara Local Meteorological Observatory. The climate in the rest of the prefecture is that of higher elevations especially in the south, with −5 °C (23 °F) being the extreme minimum in winter. Heavy rainfall is often observed in summer. The annual accumulated rainfall totals as much as 3,000 to 5,000 mm (118.11 to 196.85  in ), which

3021-535: The use of land as a patronage resource have been proposed as possible motivations for land reform efforts, such as the extensive redistributive land reforms of Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe. Arguments in support of land reform focus on its potential social and economic benefits, particularly in developing countries , that may emerge from reforms focused on greater land formalization. Such benefits may include eradicating food insecurity and alleviating rural poverty. And

3078-562: The woman may have both customary and statutory rights to the land, confusion over which set of laws has primacy, or even a lack of knowledge of relevant laws, leave many AIDS widows at a significant disadvantage. Also, conflicting formal and informal land laws can also clog a country's legal system, making it prone to corruption. Additional arguments for land reform focus on the potential environmental benefits of reform. For example, if reform leads to greater security of land ownership , through either formal or informal means, then those that use

3135-587: Was also established, although unlike in China, it was open only to those from noble families. The role of women became much more restricted in Japan, especially in official domains, in emulation of China. The Reform Edicts severely curtailed the independence of regional officials and constituted the imperial court as a place of appeal and complaint about the people. In addition, the last edicts attempted to end certain social practices, in order to bring Japanese society more in line with Chinese social practices. A legal code

3192-736: Was called the Gekyō ( 外京 ) , literally the outer capital area. Many of the public offices (e.g. the Municipal office, the Nara Prefectural government, the Nara Police headquarters, etc.) are located on Nijō-ōji ( 二条大路 ) , while Nara branch offices of major nationwide banks are on Sanjō-ōji ( 三条大路 ) , with both avenues running east–west. The highest point in the city is at the peak of Kaigahira-yama at an altitude of 822.0 m (2,696.85 ft) (Tsugehayama-cho district), and

3249-522: Was enacted, with a reformed bureaucracy and law. Nonetheless, powerful clans continue to exercise power in the imperial court and in regional governments. It would take centuries for the conceptual idea of the Chinese-style emperor to take root in Japan. Chinese civilization, including its art, philosophy, literature and architecture, would become much more entrenched in Japan compared to China's system of government. Land reform Land reform

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