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38-622: The Tama Lakes ( Māori : Ngā puna a Tama ) are two crater lakes in New Zealand 's Tongariro National Park . They fill two (Upper and Lower Tama) of a series of explosion craters on the Tama Saddle between Mount Ruapehu and Mount Ngaruahoe (a main Mount Tongariro vent). Geologically the deep magma source and depth of basement are not usual for vents in the area. The lakes are assumed to have subsurface drainage towards

76-903: A well-oxygenated upper layer ( epilimnion ) and an anoxic lower layer ( hypolimnion ), without oxygen and often high concentrations of sulfide . Stratification can be permanent, or with seasonal mixing. The depth of the oxic/anoxic interface separating the two layers varies from a few centimeters to near the bottom sediments, depending on local conditions. In either case, it represents an important barrier, both physically and between strongly contrasting biochemical conditions. A rich diversity of microbial life inhabit soda lakes, often in dense concentrations. This makes them unusually productive ecosystems and leads to permanent or seasonal "algae blooms" with visible colouration in many lakes. The colour varies between particular lakes, depending on their predominant life forms and can range from green to orange or red. Compared to freshwater ecosystems, life in soda lakes

114-538: A Tama Lakes area vent in this sequence was after the Half Cone vent was no loner active. Later after further activity at Half cone alone (Waihohonu member of the Mangamate formation) there was again paired activity with this vent by Tama lake area vent(s) over at least 2 months with evidence of explosive magma–groundwater interaction. Volcanic crater lake Lakes in calderas fill large craters formed by

152-412: A lake to become alkalic, a special combination of geographical, geological and climatic conditions are required. First of all, a suitable topography is needed, that limits the outflow of water from the lake. When the outflow is completely prevented, this is called an endorheic basin . Craters or depressions formed by tectonic rifting often provide such topological depressions. There are exceptions to

190-422: A long evolutionary history of adaptation to these habitats with few new species from other environments becoming adapted over time. In-depth genetic surveys also show an unusually low overlap in the microbial community present, between soda lakes with slightly different conditions such as pH and salinity. This trend is especially strong in the bottom layer ( hypolimnion ) of stratified lakes, probably because of

228-583: A permanent crater lake about 100 m (330 ft) in diameter at an elevation of 6,390 m (20,965 ft) on its eastern side. This is most likely the highest lake of any kind in the world. Due to their unstable environments, some crater lakes exist only intermittently. Caldera lakes in contrast can be quite large and long-lasting. For instance, Lake Toba ( Indonesia ) formed after its eruption around 75,000 years ago. At around 100 kilometres (62 mi) by 30 kilometres (19 mi) in extent and 505 metres (1,657 ft) deep at its deepest point, Lake Toba

266-581: Is a lake on the strongly alkaline side of neutrality, typically with a pH value between 9 and 12. They are characterized by high concentrations of carbonate salts, typically sodium carbonate (and related salt complexes), giving rise to their alkalinity. In addition, many soda lakes also contain high concentrations of sodium chloride and other dissolved salts , making them saline or hypersaline lakes as well. High pH and salinity often coincide, because of how soda lakes develop. The resulting hypersaline and highly alkalic soda lakes are considered some of

304-714: Is everywhere, but the environment selects"). Photosynthesis provides the primary energy source for life in soda lakes and this process dominates the activity at the surface. The most important photosynthesizers are typically cyanobacteria , but in many less "extreme" soda lakes, eukaryotes such as green algae ( Chlorophyta ) can also dominate. Major genera of cyanobacteria typically found in soda lakes include Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina ) (notably A. platensis ), Anabaenopsis , Cyanospira , Synechococcus or Chroococcus . In more saline soda lakes, haloalkaliphilic archaea such as Halobacteria and bacteria such as Halorhodospira dominate photosynthesis. However, it

342-515: Is not clear whether this is an autotrophic process or if these require organic carbon from cyanobacterial blooms, occurring during periods of heavy rainfall that dilute the surface waters. Below the surface, anoxygenic photosynthesizers using other substances than carbon dioxide for photosynthesis also contribute to primary production in many soda lakes. These include purple sulfur bacteria such as Ectothiorhodospiraceae and purple non-sulfur bacteria such as Rhodobacteraceae (for example

380-494: Is often completely dominated by prokaryotes , i.e. bacteria and archaea , particularly in those with more "extreme" conditions (higher alkalinity and salinity, or lower oxygen content). However, a rich diversity of eukaryotic algae, protists and fungi have also been encountered in many soda lakes. Multicellular animals such as crustaceans (notably the brine shrimp Artemia and the copepod Paradiaptomus africanus ) and fish (e.g. Alcolapia ), are also found in many of

418-416: Is reached between the rates of incoming and outgoing water. Sources of water loss singly or together may include evaporation , subsurface seepage, and, in places, surface leakage or overflow when the lake level reaches the lowest point on its rim. At such a saddle location, the upper portion of the lake is contained only by its adjacent natural volcanic dam ; continued leakage through or surface outflow across

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456-552: Is the largest crater lake in the world. While many crater lakes are picturesque, they can also be deadly. Gas discharges from Lake Nyos in Cameroon suffocated 1,800 people in 1986, and crater lakes such as Mount Ruapehu 's (New Zealand) often contribute to destructive lahars . Certain bodies of water, although their formation is directly related to volcanic activity, are not usually referred to as crater lakes, including: Soda lake A soda lake or alkaline lake

494-418: The "no outlet" rule: both Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika have outlets but also have the characteristics of soda lakes, and Lake Tanganyika even grows microbialites . The high alkalinity and salinity arise through evaporation of the lake water. This requires suitable climatic conditions, in order for the inflow to balance outflow through evaporation . The rate at which carbonate salts are dissolved into

532-511: The Mangamate formation was erupted over less than a month with the largest eruption being at the Tongagiro Half Cone vent, but at least three other tephra falls came from Tama Lakes area. At least one of the earlier Tama Lakes eruption columns collapsed generating another pyroclastic flow to the south-east of the lakes that was 0.03 ± 0.0075 km (0.0072 ± 0.0018 cu mi) in volume. The last eruption from

570-965: The bacterial community of the lake with the highest salinity was characterized by a higher recent accelerated diversification than the community of a freshwater lake, whereas the phylogenetic diversity in the hypersaline lake was lower than that in a freshwater lake. Culture-independent surveys have revealed that the diversity of microorganisms in soda lakes is very high, with species richness (number of species present) of individual lakes often rivaling that of freshwater ecosystems. In addition to their rich biodiversity, soda lakes often harbour many unique species, adapted to alkalic conditions and unable to live in environments with neutral pH. These are called alkaliphiles . Organisms also adapted to high salinity are called haloalkaliphiles . Culture-independent genetic surveys have shown that soda lakes contain an unusually high amount of alkaliphilic microorganisms with low genetic similarity to known species. This indicates

608-413: The collapse of a volcano during an eruption. Lakes in maars fill medium-sized craters where an eruption deposited debris around a vent. Crater lakes form as the created depression, within the crater rim , is filled by water. The water may come from precipitation , groundwater circulation (often hydrothermal fluids in the case of volcanic craters) or melted ice . Its level rises until an equilibrium

646-545: The dam can erode its included material, thus lowering lake level until a new equilibrium of water flow, erosion, and rock resistance is established. If the volcanic dam portion erodes rapidly or fails catastrophically, the occurrence produces a breakout or outburst flood. With changes in environmental conditions over time, the occurrence of such floods is common to all natural dam types. These lakes may become soda lakes , many of which are associated with active tectonic and volcanic zones. A well-known crater lake, which bears

684-750: The equator. In general, the microbial biodiversity of soda lakes is relatively poorly studied. Many studies have focused on the primary producers, namely the photosynthesizing cyanobacteria or eukaryotic algae (see Carbon cycle ). As studies have traditionally relied on microscopy , identification has been hindered by the fact that many soda lakes harbour poorly studied species, unique to these relatively unusual habitats and in many cases thought to be endemic , i.e. existing only in one lake. The morphology (appearance) of algae and other organisms may also vary from lake to lake, depending on local conditions, making their identification more difficult, which has probably led to several instances of taxonomic confusions in

722-430: The high pH prohibits the release of hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) in gas form. Genera of alkaliphilic sulfur-reducers found in soda lakes include Desulfonatronovibrio and Desulfonatronum . These also play important an ecological role besides in the cycling of sulfur, as they also consume hydrogen , resulting from the fermentation of organic matter. Sulfur-oxidating bacteria instead derive their energy from oxidation of

760-461: The high pH. This can hinder nitrification , in which ammonia is "recycled" to the bio-available form nitrate . However, ammonia oxidation seems to be efficiently carried out in soda lakes in either case, probably by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria as well as Thaumarchaea . The following table lists some examples of soda lakes by region, listing country, pH and salinity. NA indicates 'data not available': Many water-soluble chemicals are extracted from

798-504: The internal nitrogen cycle very important for their ecological functioning. One possible source of bio-available nitrogen is diazotrophic cyanobacteria , which can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere during photosynthesis . However, many of the dominant cyanobacteria found in soda lakes such as Arthrospira are probably not able to fix nitrogen. Ammonia , a nitrogen-containing waste product from degradation of dead cells, can be lost from soda lakes through volatilization because of

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836-451: The isolated character of such environments. Diversity data from soda lakes suggest the existence of many endemic microbial species, unique to individual lakes. This is a controversial finding, since conventional wisdom in microbial ecology dictates that most microbial species are cosmopolitan and dispersed globally, thanks to their enormous population sizes, a famous hypothesis first formulated by Lourens Baas Becking in 1934 ("Everything

874-488: The lake water also depends on the surrounding geology and can in some cases lead to relatively high alkalinity even in lakes with significant outflow. Another critical geological condition for the formation of a soda lake is the relative absence of soluble magnesium or calcium . Otherwise, dissolved magnesium (Mg ) or calcium (Ca ) will quickly remove the carbonate ions, through the precipitation of minerals such as calcite , magnesite or dolomite , effectively neutralizing

912-780: The less extreme soda lakes, adapted to the extreme conditions of these alkalic and often saline environments. Particularly in the East African Rift Valley , microorganisms in soda lakes also provide the main food source for vast flocks of the lesser flamingo ( Phoeniconaias minor ). The cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina ) are a particularly preferred food source for these birds, owing to their large cell size and high nutritional value. Declines in East African soda lake productivity due to rising water levels threaten this food source. This may force lesser flamingos to move north and south, away from

950-438: The most extreme aquatic environments on Earth. In spite of their apparent inhospitability, soda lakes are often highly productive ecosystems , compared to their (pH-neutral) freshwater counterparts. Gross primary production ( photosynthesis ) rates above 10 g C m day (grams of carbon per square meter per day), over 16 times the global average for lakes and streams ( 0.6 g C m day ), have been measured. This makes them

988-513: The most productive aquatic environments on Earth. An important reason for the high productivity is the virtually unlimited availability of dissolved carbon dioxide . Soda lakes occur naturally throughout the world (see table below ), typically in arid and semi-arid areas and in connection to tectonic rifts like the East African Rift Valley . The pH of most freshwater lakes is on the alkaline side of neutrality and many exhibit similar water chemistries to soda lakes, only less extreme. In order for

1026-600: The oldest that contributed to the present Mount Tongariro massive. The Waihi fault is believed to have facilitated dyke intrusions in the area. The youngest tephra from the Tama Lakes vents is dated to about 11,000 years ago. This is the Wharepu tephra layer in the Mangamate tepra formation and started as phreatomagmatic eruptions but ended in a 0.16 ± 0.04 km (0.0384 ± 0.0096 cu mi) pyroclastic flow up to 7.5 km (4.7 mi) to

1064-467: The outcome of diversity studies, since only about one in a hundred organisms can be cultured using standard techniques. For microorganisms, the phylogenetic marker gene small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA is typically targeted, due to its good properties such as existence in all cellular organisms and ability to be used as a "molecular clock" to trace the evolutionary history of an organism. For instance, 16S ribosomal RNA gene clone libraries revealed that

1102-535: The pH of the lake water. This results in a neutral (or slightly basic) salt lake instead. A good example is the Dead Sea , which is very rich in Mg . In some soda lakes, inflow of Ca through subterranean seeps, can lead to localized precipitation. In Mono Lake , California and Lake Van , Turkey, such precipitation has formed columns of tufa rising above the lake surface. Many soda lakes are strongly stratified , with

1140-477: The primary producers, results in one-carbon (C1) compounds such as methanol and methylamine . At the bottom of lakes (in the sediment or hypolimnion , methanogens use these compounds to derive energy, by producing methane , a procedure known as methanogenesis . A diversity of methanogens including the archaeal genera Methanocalculus , Methanolobus , Methanosaeta , Methanosalsus and Methanoculleus have been found in soda lake sediments. When

1178-411: The resulting methane reaches the aerobic water of a soda lake, it can be consumed by methane-oxidizing bacteria such as Methylobacter or Methylomicrobium . Sulfur-reducing bacteria are common in anoxic layers of soda lakes. These reduce sulfate and organic sulfur from dead cells into sulfide (S ). Anoxic layers of soda lakes are therefore often rich in sulfide . As opposed to neutral lakes,

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1216-613: The same name as the geological feature, is Crater Lake in Oregon . It is located in the caldera of Mount Mazama . It is the deepest lake in the United States with a depth of 594 m (1,949 ft). Crater Lake is fed solely by falling rain and snow, with no inflow or outflow at the surface, and hence is one of the clearest lakes in the world. The highest volcano in the world, 6,893-m (22,615-ft) Ojos del Salado in Chile , has

1254-428: The scientific literature. Recently, a number of studies have used molecular methods such as DNA fingerprinting or sequencing to study the diversity of organisms in soda lakes. These methods are based on DNA extracted directly from the environment and thus do not require microorganisms to be cultured . This is a major advantage, as culturing of novel microorganisms is a laborious technique known to seriously bias

1292-502: The soda lake waters worldwide. Lithium carbonate (see Lake Zabuye ), potash (see lake Lop Nur and Qinghai Salt Lake Potash ), soda ash (see Lake Abijatta and Lake Natron ), etc. are extracted in large quantities. Lithium carbonate is a raw material in production of lithium which has applications in lithium storage batteries widely used in modern electronic gadgets and electrically powered automobiles. Water of some soda lakes are rich in dissolved uranium carbonate . Algaculture

1330-563: The south-east of the lakes. This youngest eruption happened after 11,200 years and before 10,900 years before 1950, and produced a tephra volume of at least 0.63 km (0.15 cu mi). This eruption came by fast ascent from a deep magma reservoir at between 28 to 35 km (17 to 22 mi) depth unlike the much shallower depth of recent Mount Ngaruahoe eruptions. The Tama lakes vents had often previously erupted at very similar times to other Tongariro vents during this very active period for them about 11,000 years ago. The Oturere member of

1368-463: The species Rhodobaca bogoriensis isolated from Lake Bogoria ). The photosynthesizing bacteria provide a food source for a vast diversity of aerobic and anaerobic organotrophic microorganisms from phyla including Pseudomonadota , Bacteroidota , Spirochaetota , Bacillota , Thermotogota , Deinococcota , Planctomycetota , Actinomycetota , Gemmatimonadota , and more. The stepwise anaerobic fermentation of organic compounds originating from

1406-602: The springs that source the Waihohonu Stream that flows into the Tongariro River as there are no outlet streams and even inlet streams are transient. In the region of the southern Tama Lakes of the southern Taupō Rift , the tens to hundreds of metre thick Tertiary greywacke basement is shallowest at approximately sea level, being somewhat higher under the volcanoes of Mount Ruapehu and Tongariro. Lava exists nearby that has been dated to 275,000 years ago,

1444-399: The sulfide reaching the oxygenated layers of soda lakes. Some of these are photosynthetic sulfur phototrophs, which means that they also require light to derive energy. Examples of alkaliphilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are the genera Thioalkalivibrio , Thiorhodospira , Thioalkalimicrobium and Natronhydrogenobacter . Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for growth in many soda lakes, making

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