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85-464: The town is built on a hill slope on the site of an ancient city which, for hundreds of years, served as the principal port of Siam. Ethnic Bamars (Burmans) (with Dawei and Myeik subgroups) are the majority community here. The hill people who are non-Buddhists are most numerous here. The majority of the population speak the Tavoyan dialect . The town name has varied, often based on the nationality of

170-581: A common-pool resource , such as grazing lands used for pastoralism, can be managed more sustainably through community groups and cooperatives than through privatization or total governmental control. Ostrom was awarded a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for her work. Pastoralists in the Sahel zone in Africa were held responsible for the depletion of resources. The depletion of resources

255-418: A live woman was thrown into the hole where the pillar was planted and that she became the city's spiritual guardian. In earlier days, approximately 4 sq mi (10 km) of the town were surrounded by a brick and mud wall. Though the wall has since been dismantled and the bricks repurposed within other buildings such as the jail, the wall's foundation can still be seen in certain places. Its courthouse

340-429: A market economy are not excluded. The boundaries between states impact the viability of subsistence and trade relations with cultivators. Pastoralist strategies typify effective adaptation to the environment. Precipitation differences are evaluated by pastoralists. In East Africa, different animals are taken to specific regions throughout the year that corresponds to the seasonal patterns of precipitation. Transhumance

425-440: A mountain community some distance from where they work. Forestry and traditional agriculture is declining in the mountain areas of Japan, Europe and the eastern United States as government subsidies are withdrawn. Outside Europe and Japan the human population in mountains is rising as they are used as refuges, sources of minerals, for tourism, and for commercial forestry, farming and animal husbandry. Colonization and immigration in

510-838: A quarter of the total population—living on about 43 percent of the continent's total land mass." Pastoralists manage rangelands covering about a third of the Earth's terrestrial surface and are able to produce food where crop production is not possible. Pastoralism has been shown, "based on a review of many studies, to be between 2 and 10 times more productive per unit of land than the capital intensive alternatives that have been put forward". However, many of these benefits go unmeasured and are frequently squandered by policies and investments that seek to replace pastoralism with more capital intensive modes of production. They have traditionally suffered from poor understanding, marginalization and exclusion from dialogue. The Pastoralist Knowledge Hub, managed by

595-420: A radius of a hundred to five hundred kilometers. Pastoralists and their livestock have impacted the environment. Lands long used for pastoralism have transformed under the forces of grazing livestock and anthropogenic fire . Fire was a method of revitalizing pastureland and preventing forest regrowth. The collective environmental weights of fire and livestock browsing have transformed landscapes in many parts of

680-529: A reputation for trade with European nations since the 17th century. In 1759, the Burmese conqueror Alaungpaya invaded the town. He pillaged it the following year and further damaged it in 1765. When Ayutthaya was destroyed in 1767, the town was brought to commercial ruin. The town fell under British control in the First Anglo-Burmese War in 1824. Tanintharyi lies on the southern bank of

765-408: A result of the increasing importance of both intensive agriculture and pastoralism. Both agriculture and pastoralism developed alongside each other, with continuous interactions. A different theory suggests that pastoralism evolved from the hunting and gathering . Hunters of wild goats and sheep were knowledgeable about herd mobility and the needs of the animals. Such hunters were mobile and followed

850-409: A trade centre depended on it serving as the starting-point on the western coast of Siam as an overland route to the capital, Ayutthaya , which controlled the region during the 15th to 18th centuries. In addition, it was a port at which smaller vessels could unload their cargoes. The town, along with the port cities of Dawei and Myeik , were pivotal to Ayutthaya's Indian Ocean trade. The town enjoyed

935-434: Is a general term for people who live in the hills and mountains . This includes all rugged land above 300 metres (980 ft) and all land (including plateaus) above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) elevation. The climate is generally harsh, with steep temperature drops between day and night, high winds, runoff from melting snow and rain that cause high levels of erosion and thin, immature soils. People have used or lived in

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1020-454: Is a variation in genetic makeup of the farm animals driven mainly by natural and human based selection. For example, pastoralists in large parts of Sub Saharan Africa are preferring livestock breeds which are adapted to their environment and able to tolerate drought and diseases. However, in other animal production systems these breeds are discouraged and more productive exotic ones are favored. This situation could not be left unaddressed due to

1105-609: Is classified as mountain, including plateaus. This accounts for 20% of the total. Mountain regions in a 2003 study by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations follow the WCMC classification. Mountain environments vary depending on their latitude and their proximity to the edge of a landmass. The windward side will have greater rainfall than the leeward. The mountain environment can be harsh, particularly in

1190-945: Is difficult to predict how well the mountain populations will adapt to changes in the resources on which they rely for subsistence, although it seems clear that there will be increased competition for use of the land for different purposes. People have lived in mountain regions for thousands of years. Some may have sought refuge from persecution or from changing climate, while others may have migrated in search of food. New arrivals sometimes settled and developed prosperous farming communities. Streams, rivers and lakes that provide water for agriculture and domestic use are often found in valleys with flat ground suitable for cultivation of crops. These are prime locations for settlements. The streams could also be harnessed by mills to process grain. More recently they are used for hydroelectric plants, which provide overall social benefits but can be very disruptive locally. The difficulty of movement between valleys in

1275-465: Is implausible, and yet it is applied in development projects around the globe, motivating the destruction of community and other governance systems that have managed sustainable pastoral systems for thousands of years. The outcomes have often been disastrous. In her book Governing the Commons , Elinor Ostrom showed that communities were not trapped and helpless amid diminishing commons. She argued that

1360-537: Is much higher, which is evident in the East African grasslands of pastoralist populations. However, the property rights structure is only one of the many different parameters that affect the sustainability of resources, and common or private property per se, does not necessarily lead to sustainability. Some pastoralists supplement herding with hunting and gathering, fishing and/or small-scale farming or pastoral farming . Mobility allows pastoralists to adapt to

1445-575: Is no strong evidence that people who live at high elevations have become genetically adapted to the low levels of oxygen. They are not genetically isolated from the people of the lowlands, and typically move through a much wider range of elevations than other mountain species. However, studies have shown that some positive selected genes or gene regions do contribute to adaptation to high altitude in Andeans and Tibetans. Studies in Peru of aerobic capacity ,

1530-829: Is not yet evidence that inheritance is a strong factor in high-altitude adaptation in humans . The people of the tropical high mountains experience more exposure to solar irradiance than lowlanders, and must adapt to wider temperature extremes between day and night. Seasonal weather imposes periods of low and high activity, and of scarce and plentiful food. Unpredictable droughts, periods of intense cold, plant and animal disease, and so on make food availability uncertain. An estimated 245 million mountain people are thought to be at risk of food shortages. 87% of these live below 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). Water boils at lower temperatures at higher altitudes, so it takes longer to cook food and requires more water and fuel. Gathering fuel in turn requires energy. Compared to non-mountain populations,

1615-460: Is practical to grow cash crops such as carrots , cabbage , beans , garlic and apples for sale in distant markets. In Africa there is strong pressure on the mid-elevation environment from commercial and subsistence farming. Rapid population growth in East Africa is mainly concentrated in the fertile farmlands of the mountain regions. Although the public has come to value the presence in

1700-481: Is practiced in different climates and environments with daily movement and seasonal migration. Pastoralists are among the most flexible populations. Pastoralist societies have had field armed men protect their livestock and their people and then to return into a disorganized pattern of foraging. The products of the herd animals are the most important resources, although the use of other resources, including domesticated and wild plants, hunted animals, and goods accessible in

1785-537: Is the migration of livestock and pastoralists between seasonal pastures. In the Himalayas , pastoralists have often historically and traditionally depended on rangelands lying across international borders. The Himalayas contain several international borders, such as those between India and China, India and Nepal, Bhutan and China, India and Pakistan, and Pakistan and China. With the growth of nation states in Asia since

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1870-639: Is vital for creating knowledge through the networks of linked societies. Pastoralists produce food in the world's harshest environments, and pastoral production supports the livelihoods of rural populations on almost half of the world's land. Several hundred million people are pastoralists, mostly in Africa and Asia . ReliefWeb reported that "Several hundred million people practice pastoralism—the use of extensive grazing on rangelands for livestock production, in over 100 countries worldwide. The African Union estimated that Africa has about 268 million pastoralists—over

1955-598: The Appalachians and mining for metal ores in the western mountains resulted in growth of settlements between 1850 and 1930. Many of these were abandoned during the Great Depression , but mining is still an important part of the mountain economy of the Americas. Although mining in the mountains has a very long history, the local communities often resent the exploitation of common lands by mining companies and

2040-652: The Equator . The coast land has a long maritime history of trade dealings with the rest of the world, particularly India on the Coromandel coast , Siam and the Middle East. Less than a mile from the present village stands and erected by the Siamese at the city's founding in 1383 AD is a large, roughly cut stone pillar weighing several tons which is said to have once been the original city centre. Legend has it that

2125-726: The Great Tenasserim River , tucked away into a small peninsula, with the Great Tenasserim River to the north and west and the Little Tenasserim River to the east. Settlements close to Tanintharyi include Kadaw to the west, Mawtone across the river to the north-west and Bangyok to the north-east. It is characterized by a narrow coastal zone flanked by mountains, and is situated between the Gulf of Martaban and Victoria Point, just north of

2210-655: The Peruvian Andes and the Central Nepal Himalaya shows strong similarities. At low elevations crops in all three regions include fruits, and at mid elevations they all include cereals such as barley and wheat, and maize and rice in the Andes and Himalaya. Higher up the production gives way to tubers such as potatoes, then to forest, and then at high elevations to pasture for sheep , cattle , goats , and in Peru for camelids . The people of

2295-637: The Tibetan plateau , the Eurasian steppes , the Andes , Patagonia , the Pampas , Australia and many other places. As of 2019 , between 200 million and 500 million people globally practiced pastoralism, and 75% of all countries had pastoral communities. Pastoral communities have different levels of mobility. The [[enclosure of common lands has led to Sedentary pastoralism becoming more common as

2380-494: The alpine regions above the tree line at higher elevations and in the drier climates outside the tropics. No more than 3% of world's land that is highly suitable for agriculture lies in the mountain regions. Temperatures tend to always be high on the lower slopes near the equator, and there is often heavy rainfall year-round. Higher up and outside the tropics, temperatures can soar in the daytime and plummet at night. Usually there are strong winds, frequent freezing and thawing at

2465-523: The biodiversity of such landscapes and prevent them from evolving into dense shrublands or forests. Grazing and browsing at the appropriate levels often can increase biodiversity in Mediterranean climate regions. Pastoralists shape ecosystems in different ways: some communities use fire to make ecosystems more suitable for grazing and browsing animals. One theory suggests that pastoralism developed from mixed farming . Bates and Lees proposed that

2550-462: The Alps. The rugged mountains of the island of Papua New Guinea contain fertile valleys with temperate climates that are densely farmed using traditional techniques. The 7.6 million people of the island speak almost 1,300 languages, many of which are spoken by only a few hundred people. The cultural groups that live in the mountains are often minorities within their countries, although they may be in

2635-414: The Andes maintain what John Victor Murra calls "vertical control", in which groups of people use kinship and other arrangements to access the resources of a range of ecological zones at different elevations, and thus to access a variety of crops and animals. This gives more security than dependence on a single resource. The volcanic mountain region of Java supports dense populations who take advantage of

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2720-449: The Commons (1968) described how common property resources, such as the land shared by pastoralists, eventually become overused and ruined. According to Hardin's paper, the pastoralist land use strategy was unstable and a cause of environmental degradation . One of Hardin's conditions for a "tragedy of the commons" is that people cannot communicate with each other or make agreements and contracts. Many scholars have pointed out that this

2805-634: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN serves as a knowledge repository on technical excellence on pastoralism as well as "a neutral forum for exchange and alliance building among pastoralists and stakeholders working on pastoralist issues". The Afar pastoralists in Ethiopia uses an indigenous communication method called dagu for information. This helps them in getting crucial information about climate and availability of pastures at various locations. There

2890-638: The South Asian mountains work in other countries such as the Gulf States and send part of their earnings home. Men in the Andes often find seasonal work in the lowland farms and oilfields, or work in developed countries such as Spain. This creates a fragile economy where the old people, women and children who remain behind depend on remittances from the men. The situation in Europe and North America used to be similar, but with improved transportation today

2975-413: The abundant timber for fire and shelter. The Dayaks of Kalimantan still follow a traditional hunting and gathering lifestyle, although they are under growing pressure from the outside world. Later human settlers in the mountains practiced a combination of hunting and gathering, raising crops and tending livestock, with most families involved in all these activities. As specialist workers have emerged,

3060-481: The animals in search for any available grazing-grounds—without much long-term planning. Grazing in woodlands and forests may be referred to as silvopastoralism . Those who practice pastoralism are called "pastoralists". Pastoralist herds interact with their environment, and mediate human relations with the environment as a way of turning uncultivated plants (like wild grass) into food. In many places, grazing herds on savannas and in woodlands can help maintain

3145-574: The associated environmental damage. So far, there has been relatively little mining in the Hindu Kush , Karakoram and Himalayas , although this seems likely to change. Many of the mountain people in developing countries are poor and depend on scarce or diminishing food resources from agriculture or livestock. They may be partially employed in forestry, mining and service jobs. In the past Gurkhas , Swiss and Scottish highlanders served as mercenaries in foreign countries. Today many people from

3230-438: The body's ability to obtain oxygen, show that there is little difference between natives born at high elevations and lowlanders who move to high elevations when they were young children, although the lowlanders had more European ancestry than the high elevation natives. Aerobic capacity was lower with migrants who moved up in their adolescence, and lower again in those who moved as adults. Genetics are obviously important, but there

3315-637: The centrality of water in pastoral life: Ceel biyo lihi ma foga A well which has water is never far Mobility was an important strategy for the Ariaal ; however with the loss of grazing land impacted by the growth in population, severe drought, the expansion of agriculture, and the expansion of commercial ranches and game parks, mobility was lost. The poorest families were driven out of pastoralism and into towns to take jobs. Few Ariaal families benefited from education, healthcare, and income earning. The flexibility of pastoralists to respond to environmental change

3400-432: The changes in market preferences and climate all over the world, which could lead to changes in livestock diseases occurrence and decline forage quality and availability. Hence pastoralists can maintain farm animal genetic resources by conserving local livestock breeds. Generally conserving farm animal genetic resources under pastoralism is advantageous in terms of reliability and associated cost. Hardin's Tragedy of

3485-502: The creation of protected areas. Some pastoralists are constantly moving, which may put them at odds with sedentary people of towns and cities. The resulting conflicts can result in war for disputed lands. These disputes are recorded in ancient times in the Middle East, as well as for East Asia. Other pastoralists are able to remain in the same location which results in longer-standing housing. Different mobility patterns can be observed: Somali pastoralists keep their animals in one of

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3570-496: The critical density of 25 people per km . The growing mountain population in developing and transition countries is creating serious environmental problems in forest and grazing lands. Some of the forest or grazing land could be converted to crops for subsistence or cash, but 78% is unsuitable for this purpose, or only marginally suitable. Paleolithic hunters and gatherers followed the mountain fauna as they moved from summer to winter pastures, fished, gathered edible plants and used

3655-399: The developed world the mountain people are generally prosperous, and the mountains may be used for tourism and outdoor recreation. Mining is also widespread and dates back to the pre-Christian era. In parts of the developing world the mountain communities depend on remittances from young men who have gone to work in the lowlands or overseas. Although 70% of mountain people live in rural areas,

3740-402: The environment, which opens up the possibility for both fertile and infertile regions to support human existence. Important components of pastoralism include low population density, mobility, vitality, and intricate information systems. The system is transformed to fit the environment rather than adjusting the environment to support the "food production system." Mobile pastoralists can often cover

3825-729: The following mountain area populations by geographical region and elevation: The 2003 FAO report gives the following mountain area population densities by geographical region and class of mountain region: The 2003 FAO report gives the following area and population estimates: Pastoralism Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as " livestock ") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands ( pastures ) for grazing , historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds . The animal species involved include cattle , camels , goats , yaks , llamas , reindeer , horses , and sheep . Pastoralism occurs in many variations throughout

3910-487: The formal definition. 22% of the world's land, or 29,000,000 square kilometres (11,000,000 sq mi) is classified as a mountain region, of which about half is below 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). Rugged land is considered a mountain region if it is at least 300 metres (980 ft) above sea level, but plateaus and broad valleys running through the mountains below 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) are not considered mountain regions. All land above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft)

3995-645: The fragile soil. Often human activity has degraded the mountain environments. Humans have reduced biodiversity in many of the world's mountain regions. Areas with high biodiversity where the environment is under intense stress include California 's montane ecoregions ( California montane chaparral and woodlands ), the mixed forest ecoregion in the Caucasus , and in northwest South America the Magdalena Valley montane forests , Magdalena–Urabá moist forests and Western Ecuador moist forests . Almost 28% of

4080-407: The hardening of political borders, land tenures , expansion of crop farming , and construction of fences and dedicated agricultural buildings all reduce the ability to move livestock around freely, leading to the rise of pastoral farming on established grazing-zones (sometimes called " ranches "). Sedentary pastoralists may also raise crops and livestock together in the form of mixed farming , for

4165-411: The harshest environments but they have evolved over the centuries. Somalis have well developed pastoral culture where complete system of life and governance has been refined. Somali poetry depicts humans interactions, pastoral animals, beasts on the prowl, and other natural things such the rain, celestial events and historic events of significance. Wise sage Guled Haji coined a proverb that encapsulates

4250-583: The herds on their seasonal rounds. Undomesticated herds were chosen to become more controllable for the proto-pastoralist nomadic hunter and gatherer groups by taming and domesticating them. Hunter-gatherers' strategies in the past have been very diverse and contingent upon the local environmental conditions, like those of mixed farmers. Foraging strategies have included hunting or trapping big game and smaller animals, fishing, collecting shellfish or insects, and gathering wild-plant foods such as fruits, seeds, and nuts. These diverse strategies for survival amongst

4335-627: The higher levels, snow, sleet and heavy rainfall in some areas, causing steady erosion. The thin soils on the slopes do not retain water, and only support drought-resistant plants . Often these plants are low and store energy in spreading roots, with relatively little vegetation above ground. This vegetation may be cleared for cultivation or road building, or may be overgrazed, resulting in rapid soil loss through erosion. People have both adapted to mountain conditions and modified those conditions. For example, farmers in many areas use terracing to retain soil and water. Contour ploughing also helps stabilize

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4420-515: The highest percentages of mountain people are Bhutan (89%), Rwanda (75%), Lesotho (73%), Armenia (70%), Guatemala (64%), Costa Rica (63%) and Yemen (61%). About 70% of the mountain population is rural and relies on farming, fishing and extraction from local forests. The permanent mountain population also includes itinerant mineral prospectors, miners, loggers, construction workers and others who move from place to place. Better roads and vehicles may allow these people to live permanently in

4505-734: The incorporation of irrigation into farming resulted in specialization. Advantages of mixed farming include reducing risk of failure, spreading labour, and re-utilizing resources. The importance of these advantages and disadvantages to different farmers or farming societies differs according to the sociocultural preferences of the farmers and the biophysical conditions as determined by rainfall, radiation, soil type, and disease. The increased productivity of irrigation agriculture led to an increase in population and an added impact on resources. Bordering areas of land remained in use for animal breeding. This meant that large distances had to be covered by herds to collect sufficient forage. Specialization occurred as

4590-420: The lack of roads may be seen as evidence of discrimination. Today, new transport and communications technologies are bringing goods, services, infrastructure and information to even the most remote parts of the mountains. The mountain communities are being forced to integrate with the larger global society. The Food and Agriculture Organization estimated in their 2003 report that around 720 million, or 12% of

4675-751: The last 400 years have been causing steady population growth in formerly less populated mountain areas in Africa, Australia, New Zealand, South America, Canada and the Western United States, also in some places such as Talysh people lands in Iran there are people who still live on mountains . Many of the high-elevation people grow slowly and have small bodies. This may reduce their energy requirements without affecting their ability to handle hypoxia , cold and work demands. Long term high-elevation residents have expanded lungs and hearts, higher levels of hemoglobin in their blood and shorter limbs. There

4760-880: The majority in their region. This is true of the Tibetans , Naxi , Miao , Yi and Uyghurs in China, the Kurds in the north of Iraq and the east of Turkey , the Amhars in Ethiopia and the Quechua and Aymara in the Andes. Often the mountain people are marginalized both politically and economically. The isolated mountain regions of the Atlas, Peru and Cuba have served as bases for guerrilla rebels. While mountain areas are more isolated than lower or flatter lands, when measured by

4845-413: The members of each household perform fewer activities, but there are more occupations within the community as a whole. This trend has accelerated in the last 400 years, driven by the industrial revolution and colonialism, the transition to commercial produce such as furs and minerals, and the recent growth of tourism. During this period large numbers of Han Chinese settlers migrated to the mountain areas in

4930-664: The mid-twentieth century, mobility across the international borders in these countries have tended to be more and more restricted and regulated. As a consequence, the old, customary arrangements of trans-border pastoralism have generally tended to disintegrate, and trans-border pastoralism has declined. Within these countries, pastoralism is often at conflict these days with new modes of community forestry, such as Van Panchayats ( Uttarakhand ) and Community Forest User Groups ( Nepal ), which tend to benefit settled agricultural communities more. Frictions have also tended to arise between pastoralists and development projects such as dam-building and

5015-750: The migratory herds could also provide an evolutionary route towards nomadic pastoralism . Pastoralism occurs in uncultivated areas. Wild animals eat the forage from the marginal lands and humans survive from milk, blood, and often meat of the herds and often trade by-products like wool and milk for money and food . Pastoralists do not exist at basic subsistence . Pastoralists often compile wealth and participate in international trade. Pastoralists have trade relations with agriculturalists, horticulturalists , and other groups. Pastoralists are not extensively dependent on milk, blood, and meat of their herd. McCabe noted that when common property institutions are created, in long-lived communities, resource sustainability

5100-500: The mountain forests so as to reduce flooding and erosion. The impact of climate change on mountain environments is not well understood, but they seem to be more sensitive than the lowlands. The higher-level ecosystems will be forced up the mountains as temperatures rise, shrinking in size and at some point disappearing. Threats include environmental stress during adaptation to higher mean annual temperatures, changes to precipitation patterns and more frequent extreme weather events. It

5185-476: The mountain people are quite prosperous. The mountains are visited seasonally by nomadic pastoralists such as the Gaddis and Gurjars in the western Himalayas. A similar seasonal pattern was followed by North American hunters and gatherers in the past. Other semi-permanent residents in the developed countries include young people who find jobs in the ski resorts or as tree planters and people with second homes in

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5270-414: The mountain people suffer more from malnutrition due to food shortage and deficiencies in micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and suffer from respiratory diseases caused by the severe climate and smoke in their shelters during the cold periods. These problems are compounded by poor access to primary health care. Based on a detailed GIS survey, in mountain regions of developing and transitional countries

5355-544: The mountains for thousands of years, first as hunter-gatherers and later as farmers and pastoralists . The isolated communities are often culturally and linguistically diverse. Today about 720 million people, or 12% of the world's population, live in mountain regions, many of them economically and politically marginalized. The mountain residents have adapted to the conditions, but in the developing world they often suffer from food insecurity and poor health. They depend on crops, livestock and forest products, and tend to be poor. In

5440-713: The mountains in Latin America include Mexico City at 2,250 metres (7,380 ft), with about 21 million people, Bogotá at 2,650 metres (8,690 ft), Quito at 2,850 metres (9,350 ft), La Paz at 3,500 to 3,800 metres (11,500 to 12,500 ft), Caracas and Santiago . In North America they include Denver , Vancouver and Calgary . Geneva and Zürich are among European mountain cities, and Addis Ababa and Nairobi among African mountain cities. The list in Asia includes Tehran , Bandung , Chandigarh , Dehradun , Siliguri , Kathmandu , Chengdu and Kunming . The large cities are more or less influenced by

5525-479: The mountains of large predators such as bears , wolves and snow leopards , the local people tend not share that view, since the wildlife preys upon their livestock and crops. Mining has been an important part of mountain economies throughout history, with prospectors seeking precious stones, ores, coal and salt in the mountains of Europe and the Americas. In many places rock, gravel and sand quarries are also economically important. In North America, coal mining in

5610-519: The mountains they use for recreation. In South and East Asia, much of the labor for construction, road building and road maintenance is supplied by poor laborers from the lowlands. The Sherpas in the region near Mount Everest can often afford to employ Rai workers for most manual tasks. Almost 30% of mountain people live in towns or cities. The largest cities are on the margins of the mountains, or are on high plateaus, sometimes very high. Examples of large (over 1 million people) cities in or beside

5695-471: The mountains, including the low-lying Vancouver and Chandigarh, but to a lesser degree than the smaller cities and towns within the mountains. The smaller cities, typically in mountain valleys, are more closely linked to the mountain culture, although they have often diversified into tourism and recreation services, mineral processing, manufacturing, administration and services. The mountain cities, particularly in developing countries, are magnets to migrants from

5780-534: The needs of the state in reducing the autonomy and livelihoods of pastoral people. The violent herder–farmer conflicts in Nigeria , Mali , Sudan , Ethiopia and other countries in the Sahel and Horn of Africa regions have been exacerbated by climate change , land degradation , and population growth . It has also been shown that pastoralism supports human existence in harsh environments and often represents

5865-456: The past has isolated mountain communities and contributed to high levels of cultural diversity. Nearby communities may have different languages and dialects, traditions, costumes, cuisine and economic systems. This is seen in the Andes and the western mountains of Canada. In the central Karakoram there are speakers of Shina , Urdu , Waki and Burushaski . Many distinct dialects of French , German , Italian and Romansch are spoken in

5950-693: The percentage of the population that lives more than 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) from a road the difference is not great as might be expected. Thus in Ethiopia 50% of mountain people and 40% of non-mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road. In Afghanistan and China 30% of mountain people live more than 5 kilometres from a road, compared to 20% of non-mountain people. In Peru the respective ratios are 20% and 13%. Population densities in inaccessible places are usually similar to accessible places. In Ethiopia and Afghanistan they are higher. The mountain people want land that can be farmed using traditional methods more than ease of travel to distant places. However,

6035-503: The purpose of diversifying productivity, obtaining manure for organic farming , and improving pasture conditions for their livestock. Mobile pastoralism includes moving herds locally across short distances in search of fresh forage and water (something that can occur daily or even within a few hours); as well as transhumance , where herders routinely move animals between different seasonal pastures across regions; and nomadism , where nomadic pastoralists and their families move with

6120-534: The rest live in cities, including large cities such as Mexico City, with a population of around 21 million. The cities attract temporary or permanent migrants from the rural areas. The smaller cities are more connected to the mountain culture and economy than the larger ones. Under the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) classification, mountain regions include both hills and mountains. See " Classes of mountain region " for

6205-524: The rich soils and diverse altitude-based ecological zones. They accept a trade-off against the high potential for disastrous eruptions. Near the equator the sun is almost overhead all year, so the orientation of slopes is unimportant. Further away, the amount of sunlight varies considerably. In the Alps the south-facing slopes are preferred for settlements and farming, while the north-facing slopes are used for forestry and ski resorts. In mountain regions with seasonal climates, including Europe, North America,

6290-527: The rural areas of the mountains seeking work, security and other benefits. Many are ringed by densely-populated squatter communities. Mountain regions are classified by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) based on absolute elevation, slope and Local Elevation Range (LER), which is the range of elevations within a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) radius, and indicates how hilly the land is. The 2003 FAO report gives

6375-572: The southern Andes and most of the Himalayas, high pastures can only be used in the summer and the people work in the lower forest zones during the winter. Nearer the equator in the central Andes, East Africa and Southeast Asia there may be less seasonal variation, and permanent settlements as high as 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) are practical, with economies based on herding and cold-resistant grains and tubers. Where crops were previously grown only for local consumption, with improved transportation it

6460-488: The southwest and west of China, while European settlers moved into South and North America. The indigenous people were often forced to work in commercial agricultural and mining enterprises. This transition was not entirely negative, but devastated many of the traditional mountain communities. Maize , millet , potatoes , tomatoes and wheat have their origins in mountain regions, as do tea , coffee and quinoa . A comparison of crops grown in southern Switzerland ,

6545-584: The traveller. These variations include Tanaosi or Tannaw (Siamese); Tanah Sari (Malay); Tenanthari, Tanncthaice, Ta-nen-tkd-ri, and Tanang-sci (Burmese); and Ta-na-ssu-li-sen (Chinese). Other sources have referred to it as Thenasserim, Tenáscri, Tciiaçar, Tanater, Tarnassari, Tenazar, Tannzzari, Tanaçari, Tanaçary, Tanaçarim, Taunararin, Tanaçarij, Tcnaiarij, Tanacarim, Tanassarim, Tenassarim, Tenasari, Tanussarin, Tenascri, Dahnnsari, Tanaseri, Tenauri, Tanasserin, Tananarino, Tenassarim, Tenassere, Tanararij, Tanassaria, Tonazarin, and Denouservn. The town's importance as

6630-432: The types of land cover and actual land use are: 17% of the mountain population grows crops or combines crop, livestock and tree farming. 19% subsist from sparsely vegetated barren land, protected areas and closed forests. 44% of mountain land is used for grazing and is home to 64% of rural mountain people. At a global level, the average population density on grazing land below 3,500 metres (11,500 ft) meets or exceeds

6715-528: The world population, live in the mountains. Of these, no more than 10% are in developed countries. About half of all mountain people are in Asia, and there are large and rapidly growing populations in South and Central America. 70% live below 1,500 metres (4,900 ft), and less than 10% above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). A very small number of people in the Himalayas and the Andes live permanently at elevations over 4,500 metres (14,800 ft). The countries with

6800-596: The world's forests grow on mountains. Forests are important in regulating water flows and providing fuel and construction material. Before humans arrived, most mountains in tropical and temperate climates would have been forested up to the tree line. Deforestation is not new, and began 3,000 years ago in China. Mountain forests around the Mediterranean and in Britain had been cleared 1,500 years ago. More recently, in China and Europe there have been efforts to restore

6885-417: The world, generally where environmentally effected characteristics such as aridity, poor soils, cold or hot temperatures, and lack of water make crop-growing difficult or impossible. Operating in more extreme environments with more marginal lands means that pastoral communities are very vulnerable to the effects of global warming . Pastoralism remains a way of life in many geographic areas, including Africa,

6970-491: The world. Fire has permitted pastoralists to tend the land for their livestock. Political boundaries are based on environmental boundaries. The Maquis shrublands of the Mediterranean region are dominated by pyrophytic plants that thrive under conditions of anthropogenic fire and livestock grazing. Nomadic pastoralists have a global food-producing strategy depending on the management of herd animals for meat, skin, wool, milk, blood, manure, and transport. Nomadic pastoralism

7055-418: Was actually triggered by a prior interference and punitive climate conditions. Hardin's paper suggested a solution to the problems, offering a coherent basis for privatization of land, which stimulates the transfer of land from tribal peoples to the state or to individuals. The privatized programs impact the livelihood of the pastoralist societies while weakening the environment. Settlement programs often serve

7140-561: Was erected on a hill above the village, and this is also the site of two ancient pagodas . In 1877, the population was approximately 666 inhabitants. As of 1916, the village contained approximately 100 houses. The town's agricultural resources include the cultivation of rubber and fruit crops. Pearl farms are also established here by the Ministry of Mines. Tanintharyi is located within the south-east Asian tin zone. Hill people Hill people , also referred to as mountain people ,

7225-401: Was reduced by colonization. For example, mobility was limited in the Sahel region of Africa with settlement being encouraged. The population tripled and sanitation and medical treatment were improved. Pastoralists have mental maps of the value of specific environments at different times of year. Pastoralists have an understanding of ecological processes and the environment. Information sharing

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