The Tetrarchy was the system instituted by Roman emperor Diocletian in 293 AD to govern the ancient Roman Empire by dividing it between two emperors, the augusti , and their junior colleagues and designated successors, the caesares .
111-518: Initially Diocletian chose Maximian as his caesar in 285, raising him to co- augustus the following year; Maximian was to govern the western provinces and Diocletian would administer the eastern ones. The role of the augustus was likened to Jupiter , while his caesar was akin to Jupiter's son Hercules . Galerius and Constantius were appointed caesares in March 293. Diocletian and Maximian retired on 1 May 305, raising Galerius and Constantius to
222-550: A Christian apologist, saying: "Lactantius has a flow of eloquence worthy of Tully : would that he had been as ready to teach our doctrines as to pull down those of others!" Similarly, the early humanists called him the "Christian Cicero " ( Cicero Christianus ). A translator of the Divine Institutes wrote: "Lactantius has always held a very high place among the Christian Fathers, not only on account of
333-666: A certain "L. Caecilius Firmianus". Lactantius had a successful public career at first. At the request of the Roman emperor Diocletian , he became an official professor of rhetoric in Nicomedia ; the voyage from Africa is described in his poem Hodoeporicum (now lost). There, he associated in the imperial circle with the administrator and polemicist Sossianus Hierocles and the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry ; he first met Constantine , and Galerius , whom he cast as villain in
444-535: A co-ruler from outside his family and that co-ruler had to be someone he trusted. The historian William Seston has argued that Diocletian, like heirless emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti ("Augustan son") upon his appointment to the office. Some agree, but the historian Frank Kolb has stated that arguments for the adoption are based on misreadings of the papyrological evidence. Maximian did take Diocletian's nomen ( family name ) Valerius, however. Finally, Diocletian knew that single rule
555-525: A leader, speaking in unison under his command. Only Lactantius , a contemporary of Diocletian and a deep ideological opponent of the Diocletianic state, referred to the tetrarchs as a simple multiplicity of rulers. Much modern scholarship was written without the term. Although Edward Gibbon pioneered the description of the Diocletianic government as a "New Empire", he never used the term "tetrarchy"; neither did Theodor Mommsen . It did not appear in
666-590: A legion near Boulogne (probably XXX Ulpia Victrix ). Carausius quickly eliminated the few remaining loyalists in his army and declared himself Augustus. Maximian could do little about the revolt. He had no fleet – he had given it to Carausius – and was busy quelling the Heruli and the Franks. Meanwhile, Carausius strengthened his position by enlarging his fleet, enlisting Frankish mercenaries, and paying his troops well. By late 286, Britain, much of northwestern Gaul, and
777-477: A liberator. With Constantius' victorious return, Maximian was able to focus on the conflict in Mauretania ( Northwest Africa ). As Roman authority weakened during the third century, nomadic Berber tribes harassed settlements in the region with increasingly severe consequences. In 289, the governor of Mauretania Caesariensis (roughly modern Algeria ) gained a temporary respite by pitting a small army against
888-466: A life of ease and luxury. Although far from the political centers of the Empire, Diocletian and Maximian remained close enough to stay in regular contact. After the death of Constantius on 25 July 306, Constantine assumed the title of Augustus. This displeased Galerius, who instead offered Constantine the title of Caesar, which Constantine accepted. The title of Augustus then went to Severus. Maxentius
999-519: A poor match for Roman legions – Diocletian certainly considered the Bagaudae sufficient threat to merit an emperor to counter them. Maximian has been implicated in a massacre of Coptic Christian troops from the headquarters unit of a legion raised in Thebes at Aucanus in modern Switzerland in early 285, during the preparations for the campaign against the Bagaudae. Maximian traveled to Gaul, engaging
1110-602: A port on the Adriatic coast, and Eboracum (modern York , in northern England near the Celtic tribes of modern Scotland and Ireland), were also significant centres for Maximian and Constantius respectively. In terms of regional jurisdiction there was no precise division among the four tetrarchs, and this period did not see the Roman state actually split up into four distinct sub-empires. Each emperor had his zone of influence within
1221-620: A praetorian prefecture), see Roman province . In the West, the augustus Maximian controlled the provinces west of the Adriatic Sea and the Syrtis , and within that region his caesar , Constantius, controlled Gaul and Britain. In the East, the arrangements between the augustus Diocletian and his caesar , Galerius, were much more flexible. Although power was shared in the tetrarchic system,
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#17327655575781332-413: A quarter of a kingdom as they saw fit; the Diocletianic tetrarchy was a college led by a single supreme leader. When later authors described the period, this is what they emphasized: Ammianus had Constantius II admonish Gallus for disobedience by appealing to the example in submission set by Diocletian's lesser colleagues; his successor Julian compared the Diocletianic tetrarchs to a chorus surrounding
1443-509: A single battle. He fought in person, riding along the battle line until the Germanic forces broke. Roman forces pursued the fleeing tribal armies and routed them. With his enemies weakened from starvation, Maximian launched a great invasion across the Rhine. He moved deep into Germanic territory, bringing destruction to his enemies' homelands and demonstrating the superiority of Roman arms. By
1554-574: A symbol of resurrection. Lactantius was of Punic or Berber origin, born into a family that had not converted to Christianity. He was a pupil of Arnobius who taught at Sicca Veneria , an important city in Numidia (corresponding to today's city of El Kef in Tunisia ). In his early life, he taught rhetoric in his native town, which may have been Cirta in Numidia, where an inscription mentions
1665-654: A victory in Gaul later that year. Maximian believed the Burgundian and Alemanni tribes of the Moselle - Vosges region to be the greatest threat, so he targeted them first. He campaigned using scorched earth tactics, laying waste to their land and reducing their numbers through famine and disease. After the Burgundians and Alemanni, Maximian moved against the weaker Heruli and Chaibones. He cornered and defeated them in
1776-536: Is no direct evidence in the ancient sources for their birthdates. Modern estimates of Maxentius' birth year have varied from c. 276 to 283, and most date Fausta's birth to c. 289 or 290. Theodora , the wife of Constantius Chlorus , is often called Maximian's stepdaughter by ancient sources, leading to claims by Otto Seeck and Ernest Stein that she was born from an earlier marriage between Eutropia and Afranius Hannibalianus . Barnes challenges this view, saying that all "stepdaughter" sources derive their information from
1887-531: Is not for you to know the times or seasons that the Father has established by his own authority," and Mark 13:32: "But of that day or hour, no one knows, neither the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father." He wrote apologetic works explaining Christianity in terms that would be palatable to educated people who still practiced the traditional religions of the Empire . He defended Christian beliefs against
1998-646: Is taken by the writer Stephen Williams and historian Timothy Barnes to mean that the two men were long-term allies, that their respective roles were pre-agreed and that Maximian had probably supported Diocletian during his campaign against Carinus (r. 283–285) but there is no direct evidence for this. With his great energy, firm aggressive character and disinclination to rebel, Maximian was an appealing candidate for imperial office. The fourth-century historian Aurelius Victor described Maximian as "a colleague trustworthy in friendship, if somewhat boorish, and of great military talents". Despite his other qualities, Maximian
2109-451: The Battle of Chrysopolis , leaving Constantine in control of the entire empire. The Constantinian dynasty 's emperors retained some aspects of collegiate rule; Constantine appointed his son Constantius II as another caesar in 324, followed by Constans in 333 and his nephew Dalmatius in 335, and the three surviving sons of Constantine in 337 were declared joint augusti together, and
2220-547: The Bavares and Quinquegentiani , but the raiders soon returned. In 296, Maximian raised an army, from Praetorian cohorts , Aquileian , Egyptian, and Danubian legionaries, Gallic and German auxiliaries , and Thracian recruits, advancing through Spain later that year. He may have defended the region against raiding Moors before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar into Mauretania Tingitana (roughly modern Morocco ) to protect
2331-465: The Renaissance by humanists , who called Lactantius the "Christian Cicero". Also often attributed to Lactantius is the poem The Phoenix , which is based on the myth of the phoenix from Egypt and Arabia. Though the poem is not clearly Christian in its motifs, modern scholars have found some literary evidence in the text to suggest the author had a Christian interpretation of the eastern myth as
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#17327655575782442-607: The Rhine frontier. Together with Diocletian, he launched a scorched earth campaign deep into Alamannic territory in 288, refortifying the frontier. The man he appointed to police the Channel shores, Carausius , rebelled in 286, causing the secession of Britain and northwestern Gaul. Maximian failed to oust Carausius, and his invasion fleet was destroyed by storms in 289 or 290. Maximian's subordinate Constantius campaigned against Carausius' successor, Allectus , while Maximian held
2553-527: The Rhine frontier . The rebel leader was ousted in 296, and Maximian moved south to combat piracy near Hispania and Berber incursions in Mauretania . When these campaigns concluded in 298, he departed for Italy, where he lived in comfort until 305. At Diocletian's behest, Maximian abdicated on 1 May 305, gave the Augustan office to Constantius, and retired to southern Italy. In late 306, Maximian took
2664-521: The Saxon Shore , but much remained to be done. For example, there is no archaeological evidence of naval bases at Dover and Boulogne during 270–285. In response to the pirate problem, Maximian appointed Mausaeus Carausius , a Menapian from Germania Inferior (southern and western Netherlands ) to command the Channel and to clear it of raiders. Carausius fared well, and by the end of 285 he
2775-600: The persecutions . Having converted to Christianity, he resigned his post before Diocletian's purging of Christians from his immediate staff and before the publication of Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" (February 24, 303). As a Latin rhetor in a Greek city, he subsequently lived in poverty according to Saint Jerome and eked out a living by writing until Constantine I became his patron . The persecution forced him to leave Nicomedia, perhaps re-locating to North Africa. The emperor Constantine appointed
2886-633: The province of Pannonia , into a family of shopkeepers. Beyond that, the ancient sources contain vague allusions to Illyricum as his homeland, to his Pannonian virtues, and to his harsh upbringing along the war-torn Danube frontier. Maximian joined the army, serving with Diocletian under the emperors Aurelian (r. 270–275) and Probus (r. 276–282). He probably participated in the Mesopotamian campaign of Carus in 283 and attended Diocletian's election as emperor on 20 November 284 at Nicomedia . Maximian's swift appointment by Diocletian as Caesar
2997-629: The 15th century and were first printed in 1465 by the Germans Arnold Pannartz and Konrad Sweynheim at the Abbey of Subiaco . This edition was the first book printed in Italy to have a date of printing, as well as the first use of a Greek alphabet font anywhere, which was apparently produced in the course of printing, as the early pages leave Greek text blank. It was probably the fourth book ever printed in Italy. A copy of this edition
3108-585: The Alamanni and a naval expedition against Carausius. Later in the year, Maximian led a surprise invasion of the Agri Decumates – a region between the upper Rhine and upper Danube deep within Alamanni territory – while Diocletian invaded Germany via Raetia . Both emperors burned crops and food supplies as they went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. They added large swathes of territory to
3219-584: The Bagaudae late in mid-285. Details of the campaign are sparse and provide no tactical detail: the historical sources dwell only on Maximian's virtues and victories. The panegyric to Maximian in 289 records that the rebels were defeated with a blend of harshness and leniency. As the campaign was against the Empire's own citizens, and therefore distasteful, it went unrecorded in titles and official triumphs . Indeed, Maximian's panegyrist declares: "I pass quickly over this episode, for I see in your magnanimity you would rather forget this victory than celebrate it." By
3330-541: The Danube by 1 July 290. Diocletian met Maximian in Milan either in late December 290 or January 291. Crowds gathered to witness the event, and the emperors devoted much time to public pageantry. Potter, among others, has surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. The rulers discussed matters of politics and war in secret, and they may have considered
3441-522: The Empire and allowed Maximian's build-up to proceed without further disturbance. In the aftermath of the war, towns along the Rhine were rebuilt, bridgeheads created on the eastern banks at such places as Mainz and Cologne, and a military frontier was established, comprising forts, roads, and fortified towns. A military highway through Tornacum ( Tournai , Belgium ), Bavacum ( Bavay , France), Atuatuca Tungrorum ( Tongeren , Belgium), Mosae Trajectum ( Maastricht , Netherlands), and Cologne connected points along
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3552-420: The Empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube, Diocletian needed a lieutenant to manage his heavy workload. Historian Stephen Williams suggests that Diocletian considered himself a mediocre general and needed a man like Maximian to do most of his fighting. Next, Diocletian was vulnerable in that he had no sons, just a daughter, Valeria, who could never succeed him. He was forced therefore to seek
3663-547: The Latin world as well, where Pliny the Elder glossed it as follows: "each is the equivalent of a kingdom, and also part of one" ( regnorum instar singulae et in regna contribuuntur ). As used by the ancients, the term describes not only different governments, but also a different system of government from the Diocletianic arrangements. The Judaean tetrarchy was a set of four independent and distinct states, where each tetrarch ruled
3774-468: The Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312. Maxentius died, and Italy came under Constantine's rule. Eutropia swore on oath that Maxentius was not Maximian's son, and Maximian's memory was rehabilitated. His apotheosis under Maxentius was declared null and void, and he was re-consecrated as a god, probably in 317. He began appearing on Constantine's coinage as divus , or divine, by 318, together with
3885-591: The Roman Empire was not divided by the dual imperium . Though divisions did take place – each emperor had his own court, army, and official residences – these were matters of practicality, not substance. Imperial propaganda from 287 on insists on a singular and indivisible Rome, a patrimonium indivisum . As the panegyrist of 289 declares to Maximian: "So it is that this great empire is a communal possession for both of you, without any discord, nor would we endure there to be any dispute between you, but plainly you hold
3996-462: The Roman Empire, but little more, mainly high command in a 'war theater'. Each tetrarch was himself often in the field, while delegating most of the administration to the hierarchic bureaucracy headed by his respective praetorian prefect , each supervising several vicarii , the governors-general in charge of another, lasting new administrative level, the civil diocese . For a listing of the provinces, now known as eparchy , within each quarter (known as
4107-542: The Tetrarchy a number of important military victories were secured. Both the dyarchic and the tetrarchic system ensured that an emperor was near to every crisis area to personally direct and remain in control of campaigns simultaneously on more than just one front. After suffering a defeat by the Persians in 296, Galerius crushed Narseh in 298—reversing a series of Roman defeats throughout the century—capturing members of
4218-974: The West and Licinius in the East. The tetrarchic system was at an end, although it took until 324 for Constantine to finally defeat Licinius, reunite the two halves of the Roman Empire and declare himself sole augustus . ( Whole, then East ) Galerius ( caesar , 1 March 293) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293) ( West ) 28 October 306 – 11 November 308 (2 years and 14 days) Galerius ( caesar , 21 March 293) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293) Maxentius (co- augustus , 306–308) Constantine I (rival augustus , 25 July 306; co- augustus , 307) ( East ) Maximian ( augustus , 21 March 293–1 May 305) Constantius I ( caesar , 1 March 293; co- augustus , 1 May 305–25 July 306) Severus II ( caesar , 1 May 305; co- augustus , August 306–April 307) Maxentius ( caesar , 28 October 306; junior co- augustus , April 307–May 311) Licinius (designated augustus for
4329-689: The West, 11 November 308–311) Maximinus II ( caesar , 1 May 305; co- augustus , 1 May 310–early May 311) ( West ) Maximian ( augustus , 1 April 286–1 May 305) Galerius ( caesar , 21 March 293; co- augustus , 1 May 305–25 July 306) Severus II ( caesar , 1 May 305 –July 306) Maximinus II ( caesar , 1 May 305–25 July 306) ( West ) Maxentius (rival augustus , 306–307; co- augustus ; 308) Licinius (rival augustus , 308–310; co- augustus , 310–316; rival, 316–324) Maximian Maximian ( Latin : Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus ; c. 250 – c. July 310 ), nicknamed Herculius ,
4440-584: The area from Frankish pirates. By March 297, Maximian had begun a bloody offensive against the Berbers. The campaign was lengthy, and Maximian spent the winter of 297–298 resting in Carthage before returning to the field. Not content to drive them back into their homelands in the Atlas Mountains – from which they could continue to wage war – Maximian ventured deep into Berber territory. The terrain
4551-543: The army defected to Maxentius. Severus fled to Ravenna , which Maximian besieged. The city was strongly fortified so Maximian offered terms, which Severus accepted. Maximian then seized Severus and took him under guard to a public villa in southern Rome, where he was kept as a hostage. In late 307, Galerius led a second force against Maxentius but he again failed to take Rome, and retreated north with his army mostly intact. While Maxentius built up Rome's defenses, Maximian made his way to Gaul to negotiate with Constantine. A deal
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4662-411: The campaign's prospects, but the panegyrist of 291 made no mention of it. Constantius' panegyrist suggested that his fleet was lost to a storm, but this might simply have been to diminish the embarrassment of defeat. Diocletian curtailed his Eastern province tour soon after, perhaps on learning of Maximian's failure. Diocletian returned in haste to the West, reaching Emesa by 10 May 290, and Sirmium on
4773-424: The claimants to the imperial office died or were killed in various civil wars. Constantine forced Maximian's suicide in 310. Galerius died naturally in 311. Maxentius was defeated by Constantine at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 and subsequently killed. Maximinus committed suicide at Tarsus in 313 after being defeated in battle by Licinius. By 313, therefore, there remained only two rulers: Constantine in
4884-632: The coins indicate which one of the four emperors is being shown. The Byzantine sculpture Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs shows the tetrarchs again with identical features and wearing the same military costume. One of the greatest problems facing emperors in the Third Century Crisis was that they were only ever able to personally command troops on one front at any one time. While Aurelian and Probus were prepared to accompany their armies thousands of miles between war regions, this
4995-656: The concept of the division of the empire under multiple joint emperors endured until the Fall of the Western Roman Empire . In the Eastern Roman Empire , augusti and caesares continued to be appointed sporadically. The term tetrarchy (from the Greek : τετραρχία , tetrarchia , "leadership of four [people]") describes any form of government where power is divided among four individuals. Although
5106-405: The condition that they acknowledged Roman dominance. Their presence provided a ready pool of manpower and prevented the settlement of other Frankish tribes, giving Maximian a buffer along the northern Rhine and reducing his need to garrison the region. By 289, Maximian was prepared to invade Carausius ' Britain, but for some reason the plan failed. Maximian's panegyrist of 289 was optimistic about
5217-586: The continent but refused to grant the secessionist state formal legitimacy. For his part, Carausius was content with his territories beyond the Continental coast of Gaul. Diocletian, however, would not tolerate this affront to his rule. Faced with Carausius' secession and further challenges on the Egyptian, Syrian, and Danubian borders, he realized that two emperors were insufficient to manage the Empire. On 1 March 293 at Milan, Maximian appointed Constantius to
5328-403: The criticisms of Hellenistic philosophers . His Divinae Institutiones ("Divine Institutes") were an early example of a systematic presentation of Christian thought. "I relate all those things on the authority of well-informed persons, and I thought it proper to commit them to writing exactly as they happened, lest the memory of events so important should perish, and lest any future historian of
5439-480: The deified Constantius and Claudius Gothicus . The three were hailed as Constantine's forebears. They were called "the best of emperors". Through his daughters Fausta and Theodora, Maximian was grandfather or great-grandfather to every reigning emperor from 337 to 363. ( See also: Chronological scheme of the Tetrarchy, 286–324 ) Notes: Bibliography: Lactantius Lucius Caecilius Firmianus , signo Lactantius (c. 250 – c. 325),
5550-472: The earlier rupture in relations, after Maximian's suicide Maxentius presented himself as his father's devoted son. He minted coins bearing his father's deified image and proclaimed his desire to avenge his death. Constantine initially presented the suicide as an unfortunate family tragedy. By 311, however, he was spreading another version. According to this, after Constantine had pardoned him, Maximian planned to murder Constantine in his sleep. Fausta learned of
5661-609: The early fourth century we see a determined attempt to revive a more 'genuine' form of chiliasm." Lactantius quoted the Sibyls extensively (although the Sibylline Oracles are now considered to be pseudepigrapha ). Book VII of The Divine Institutes indicates a familiarity with Jewish, Christian, Egyptian and Iranian apocalyptic material. Attempts to determine the time of the End were viewed as in contradiction to Acts 1:7: "It
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#17327655575785772-535: The eastern regions of the empire while Maximian similarly took charge of the western regions. In 293, Diocletian thought that more focus was needed on both civic and military problems, so with Maximian's consent, he expanded the imperial college by appointing two caesares (one responsible to each augustus )— Galerius and Constantius I . In 305, the senior emperors jointly abdicated and retired, allowing Constantius and Galerius to be elevated in rank to augustus . They in turn appointed two new caesares — Severus II in
5883-471: The eastern steppes) at the Rhine and Danube . These centres are known as the tetrarchic capitals. Although Rome ceased to be an operational capital, Rome continued to be nominal capital of the entire Roman Empire, not reduced to the status of a province but under its own, unique Prefect of the city ( praefectus urbi , later copied in Constantinople). The four tetrarchic capitals were: Aquileia ,
5994-533: The elderly Lactantius Latin tutor to his son Crispus in 309-310 who was probably 10-15 years old at the time. Lactantius followed Crispus to Trier in 317, when Crispus was made Caesar (subordinate co-emperor) and sent to the city. Crispus was put to death by order of his father Constantine I in 326. The time and circumstances of Lactantius' death are unknown. Like many of the early Christian authors, Lactantius depended on classical models. Saint Jerome praised his writing style while faulting his ability as
6105-523: The emperor was on campaign on the Rhine. Few supported him, and he was captured by Constantine in Marseille . Maximian killed himself in mid-310 on Constantine's orders. During Constantine's war with Maxentius, Maximian's image was purged from all public places. However, after Constantine ousted and killed Maxentius , Maximian's image was rehabilitated, and he was deified. Maximian was born around 250 near Sirmium (modern Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) in
6216-471: The end of 287, he had the advantage and the Rhenish lands were free of Germanic tribesmen. Maximian's panegyrist declared: "All that I see beyond the Rhine is Roman." Early the next year, as Maximian made preparations for dealing with Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East. The emperors met that year, but neither date nor place is known with certainty. They probably agreed on a joint campaign against
6327-402: The end of the year, the revolt had significantly abated, and Maximian moved the bulk of his forces to the Rhine frontier, heralding a period of stability. Maximian did not put down the Bagaudae swiftly enough to avoid a Germanic reaction. In late 285, two barbarian armies – one of Burgundians and Alamanni, the other of Chaibones and Heruli – forded the Rhine and entered Gaul. The first army
6438-424: The entire Channel coast, was under his control. Carausius declared himself head of an independent British state, an Imperium Britanniarum and issued coin of a markedly higher purity than that of Maximian and Diocletian, earning the support of British and Gallic merchants. Even Maximian's troops were vulnerable to Carausius' influence and wealth. Spurred by the crisis with Carausius, on 1 April 286, Maximian took
6549-463: The frontier. In early 288, Maximian appointed his praetorian prefect Constantius Chlorus , husband of Maximian's daughter Theodora, to lead a campaign against Carausius' Frankish allies. These Franks controlled the Rhine estuaries , thwarting sea-attacks against Carausius. Constantius moved north through their territory, wreaking havoc, and reaching the North Sea . The Franks sued for peace and in
6660-469: The gods' instruments, imposing the gods' will on earth. Once the rituals were over, Maximian assumed control of the government of the West and was dispatched to Gaul to fight the rebels known as Bagaudae while Diocletian returned to the East. The Bagaudae of Gaul are obscure figures, appearing fleetingly in the ancient sources, with their 285 uprising being their first appearance. The fourth-century historian Eutropius described them as rural people under
6771-573: The idea of expanding the imperial college to include four emperors (the Tetrarchy ). Meanwhile, a deputation from the Roman Senate met with the rulers and renewed its infrequent contact with the imperial office. The emperors would not meet again until 303. Following Maximian's failure to invade in 289, an uneasy truce with Carausius began. Maximian tolerated Carausius' rule in Britain and on
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#17327655575786882-629: The imperial household and a substantial amount of booty and gaining a highly favourable peace treaty, which secured peace between the two powers for a generation. Similarly, Constantius defeated the British usurper Allectus , Maximian pacified the Gauls, and Diocletian crushed the revolt of Domitianus in Egypt . When in 305 the 20-year term of Diocletian and Maximian ended, both abdicated. Their caesares , Galerius and Constantius Chlorus, were both raised to
6993-466: The invasion plans and, in mid-296, returned to Gaul. There, he held the Rhenish frontiers against Carausius' Frankish allies while Constantius launched his invasion of Britain. Allectus was killed on the North Downs in battle with Constantius' praetorian prefect, Asclepiodotus . Constantius himself had landed near Dubris (Dover) and marched on Londinium ( London ), whose citizens greeted him as
7104-454: The leadership of Amandus and Aelianus , while Aurelius Victor called them bandits. The historian David S. Potter suggests that they were more than peasants, seeking either Gallic political autonomy or reinstatement of the recently deposed Carus (a native of Gallia Narbonensis , in what would become southern France ): in this case, they would be defecting imperial troops, not brigands. Although poorly equipped, led and trained – and therefore
7215-557: The literature until used in 1887 by schoolmaster Hermann Schiller in a two-volume handbook on the Roman Empire ( Geschichte der Römischen Kaiserzeit ), to wit: " die diokletianische Tetrarchie ". Even so, the term did not catch on in the literature until Otto Seeck used it in 1897. The first phase, sometimes referred to as the diarchy ("rule of two"), involved the designation of the general Maximian as co-emperor—firstly as caesar (heir apparent) in 285, followed by his promotion to augustus in 286. Diocletian took care of matters in
7326-571: The new tetrarchy, which saw Galerius assume the dominant position Diocletian once held. Although Maximian led the ceremony that proclaimed Severus as Caesar , within two years he was sufficiently dissatisfied to support his son's rebellion against the new regime. Diocletian retired to the expansive palace he had built in his homeland, Dalmatia near Salona on the Adriatic . Maximian retired to villas in Campania , Lucania or Sirmium, where he lived
7437-407: The office of Caesar. On either the same day or a month later, Diocletian did the same for Galerius , thus establishing the "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four". Constantius was made to understand that he must succeed where Maximian had failed and defeat Carausius. Constantius met expectations quickly and efficiently and by 293 had expelled Carausian forces from northern Gaul. In the same year, Carausius
7548-548: The partially unreliable work of history Kaisergeschichte , while other, more reliable, sources refer to her as Maximian's natural daughter. Barnes concludes that Theodora was born no later than c. 275 to an unnamed earlier wife of Maximian, possibly one of Hannibalianus' daughters. Julia Hillner agrees with Barnes that the "stepdaughter sources" are a result of political propaganda from the later Constantinian dynasty but believes that Barnes explanation fails to explain why Theodora named one of her daughters Eutropia if her mother
7659-495: The people's gratitude to Maximian, hailing him – as Constantius had been on his entry to London – as redditor lucis aeternae ("restorer of the eternal light"). Maximian returned to Italy in early 299 to celebrate another triumph in Rome. After his Mauretanian campaign in 299, Maximian returned to the north of Italy, living a life of leisure in palaces in Milan and Aquilea, and leaving warfare to his subordinate Constantius. Maximian
7770-400: The persecutors should corrupt the truth." For unclear reasons, he became considered somewhat heretical after his death. The Gelasian Decree of the 6th century condemns his work as apocryphal and not to be read. Renaissance humanists took a renewed interest in him, more for his elaborately rhetorical Latin style than for his theology. His works were copied in manuscript several times in
7881-411: The plot and warned Constantine, who put a eunuch in his own place in bed. Maximian was apprehended when he killed the eunuch and was offered suicide, which he accepted. In addition to the propaganda, Constantine instituted a damnatio memoriae on Maximian, destroying all inscriptions referring to him and eliminating any public work bearing his image. Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Battle of
7992-528: The position of caesar to Severus. At the same time, Maxentius , the son of Maximian, resented being left out of the new arrangements, so he rebelled against and defeated Severus before forcing him to abdicate and then arranging his murder in 307. Maxentius and Maximian both then declared themselves augusti . By 308 there were therefore no fewer than four claimants to the rank of augustus (Galerius, Constantine, Maximian and Maxentius), and only one to that of caesar (Maximinus Daza). In 308 Galerius, together with
8103-427: The promotion of the augustus Licinius as their superior. After an abortive attempt to placate both Constantine and Maximinus with the meaningless title filius augusti ("son of the augustus ", essentially an alternative title for caesar ), they both had to be recognised as Augusti in 309. However, four full Augusti all at odds with each other did not bode well for the tetrarchic system. Between 309 and 313 most of
8214-408: The public image of the four members of the imperial college was carefully managed to give the appearance of a united empire ( patrimonium indivisum ). This was especially important after the numerous civil wars of the 3rd century . The tetrarchs appeared identical in all official portraits. Coinage dating from the tetrarchic period depicts every emperor with identical features—only the inscriptions on
8325-455: The rank of augustus , and two new caesares were appointed: Maximinus Daza ( caesar to Galerius) and Valerius Severus ( caesar to Constantius). These four formed the second tetrarchy. However, the system broke down very quickly thereafter. When Constantius died in 306, Constantine , Constantius' son, was proclaimed augustus by his father's troops; however, Galerius instead chose to promote Severus to augustus while granting Constantine
8436-457: The rank of augustus . Their places as caesares were in turn taken by Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza . The orderly system of two senior and two junior rulers endured until Constantius died in July 306, and his son Constantine was unilaterally acclaimed augustus and caesar by his father's army. Maximian's son Maxentius contested Severus' title, styled himself princeps invictus , and
8547-542: The rebellion, abandoned his campaign against the Franks, and moved quickly to southern Gaul, where he confronted the fleeing Maximian at Massilia ( Marseille ). The town was better able to withstand a long siege than Arles, but it made little difference as loyal citizens opened the rear gates to Constantine. Maximian was captured, reproved for his crimes, and stripped of his title for the third and last time. Constantine granted Maximian some clemency but strongly encouraged his suicide. In July 310, Maximian hanged himself. Despite
8658-700: The retired emperor Diocletian and the supposedly retired Maximian, called an imperial "conference" at Carnuntum on the River Danube. The council agreed that Licinius would become augustus in the West, with Constantine as his caesar . In the East, Galerius remained augustus and Maximinus remained his caesar . Maximian was to retire, and Maxentius was declared a usurper. This agreement proved disastrous: by 308 Maxentius had become de facto ruler of Italy and Africa even without any imperial status, and neither Constantine nor Maximinus—who had both been caesares since 306 and 305 respectively—were prepared to tolerate
8769-440: The river, they were more often in dispute with each other than in combat with the Empire. Few clear dates survive for Maximian's campaigns on the Rhine beyond a general range of 285 to 288. While receiving the consular fasces on 1 January 287, Maximian was interrupted by news of a barbarian raid. Doffing his toga and donning his armor, he marched against the barbarians and, although they were not entirely dispersed, he celebrated
8880-715: The state in equal measure as once those two Heracleidae , the Spartan Kings , had done." Legal rulings were given and imperial celebrations took place in both emperors' names, and the same coins were issued in both parts of the empire. Diocletian sometimes issued commands to Maximian's province of Africa; Maximian could presumably have done the same for Diocletian's territory. Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress Carausius and campaigned instead against Rhenish tribes. These tribes were probably greater threats to Gallic peace anyway and included many supporters of Carausius. Although Maximian had many enemies along
8991-454: The subject-matter of his writings, but also on account of the varied erudition, the sweetness of expression, and the grace and elegance of style, by which they are characterized." Like many writers in the first few centuries of the early church, Lactantius took a premillennialist view, holding that the second coming of Christ will precede a millennium or a thousand-year reign of Christ on earth. According to Charles E. Hill, "With Lactantius in
9102-540: The subsequent settlement Maximian reinstated the deposed Frankish king Gennobaudes . Gennobaudes became Maximian's vassal and, with lesser Frankish chiefs in turn swearing loyalty to Gennobaudes, Roman regional dominance was assured. Maximian allowed a settlement of Frisii , Salian Franks , Chamavi and other tribes along a strip of Roman territory, either between the Rhine and Waal rivers from Noviomagus ( Nijmegen , Netherlands) to Traiectum , (Utrecht, Netherlands) or near Trier. These tribes were allowed to settle on
9213-452: The term "tetrarch" was current in antiquity, it was never used in the imperial college (as it's often called) under Diocletian. Instead, the term was used to describe independent portions of a kingdom that were ruled under separate leaders. The tetrarchy of Judaea , established after the death of Herod the Great , is the most famous example of the antique tetrarchy. The term was understood in
9324-410: The title and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. This suggestion has not won much support, and the historian William Leadbetter has recently refuted it. Despite the physical distance between the emperors, Diocletian trusted Maximian enough to invest him with imperial powers, and Maximian still respected Diocletian enough to act in accordance with his will. In theory,
9435-456: The title of Augustus (emperor). This gave him the same status as Carausius – so the clash was between two Augusti , rather than between an Augustus and a Caesar – and, in Imperial propaganda, Maximian was proclaimed Diocletian's brother, his equal in authority and prestige. Diocletian could not have been present at Maximian's appointment, causing Seeck to suggest that Maximian usurped
9546-637: The title of Augustus again and aided his son, Maxentius , and his rebellion in Italy. In April 307, he attempted to depose his son, but failed and fled to the court of Constantius' successor, Constantine (Maximian's step-grandson and son-in-law), in Trier. At the Council of Carnuntum in November 308, Diocletian and his successor, Galerius , forced Maximian to renounce his imperial claim again. In early 310, Maximian attempted to seize Constantine's title while
9657-534: The two rulers' relationship was re-defined in religious terms, with Diocletian assuming the title Iovius and Maximian Herculius . The titles were pregnant with symbolism: Diocletian- Jove had the dominant role of planning and commanding; Maximian- Hercules the heroic role of completing assigned tasks. Yet despite the symbolism, the emperors were not "gods" in the Imperial cult (although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics). Instead, they were
9768-416: The west under Constantius, and Maximinus in the east under Galerius—thereby creating the second Tetrarchy. The four tetrarchs based themselves not at Rome but in other cities closer to the frontiers, mainly intended as headquarters for the defence of the empire against bordering rivals (notably Sassanian Persia ) and barbarians (mainly Germanic, and an unending sequence of nomadic or displaced tribes from
9879-430: The western part of the empire, while Licinius was left in control of the east on the death of Maximinus Daza. Constantine and Licinius jointly recognized their sons – Crispus , Constantine II , and Licinius II – as caesares in March 317. Ultimately the tetrarchic system lasted until c. 324, when mutually destructive civil wars eliminated most of the claimants to power: Licinius resigned as augustus after losing
9990-511: Was Roman emperor from 286 to 305. He was Caesar from 285 to 286, then Augustus from 286 to 305. He shared the latter title with his co-emperor and superior, Diocletian , whose political brain complemented Maximian's military brawn. Maximian established his residence at Trier but spent most of his time on campaign. In late 285, he suppressed rebels in Gaul known as the Bagaudae . From 285 to 288, he fought against Germanic tribes along
10101-526: Was an early Christian author who became an advisor to Roman emperor Constantine I , guiding his Christian religious policy in its initial stages of emergence, and a tutor to his son Crispus . His most important work is the Institutiones Divinae ("The Divine Institutes"), an apologetic treatise intended to establish the reasonableness and truth of Christianity to pagan critics. He is best known for his apologetic works, widely read during
10212-446: Was an unknown Afrania instead of empress Eutropia. Hillner argues that Afranius Hannibalianus was Eutropia's brother and that Theodora was the daughter of both Maximian and Eutropia. This is in line with John Vanderspoel. At Mediolanum ( Milan , Italy ) in July 285, Diocletian appointed Maximian as his heir-apparent and subordinate, with the title Caesar . The reasons for this decision are complex. With conflict in every province of
10323-510: Was appointed Augustus of the West. In early 309 Maximian returned to the court of Constantine in Gaul, the only court that would still accept him. After Constantine and Maximinus refused to be placated with the titles of Sons of the Augusti , they were promoted in early 310, with the result that there were now four Augusti . In 310, Maximian rebelled against Constantine while the Emperor
10434-412: Was appointed caesar by his retired father in 306. Severus surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius in 307. Maxentius and Constantine were both recognized as augusti by Maximian that same year. Galerius appointed Licinius augustus for the west in 308 and elevated Maximinus Daza to augustus in 310. Constantine's victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 left him in control of
10545-402: Was assassinated and replaced by his treasurer, Allectus . Constantius marched up the coast to the Rhine and Scheldt estuaries where he was victorious over Carausius' Frankish allies, taking the title Germanicus maximus . His sights now set on Britain, Constantius spent the following years building an invasion fleet. Maximian, still in Italy after the appointment of Constantius, was apprised of
10656-513: Was capturing pirate ships in great numbers. Maximian soon heard that Carausius was waiting until the pirates had finished plundering before attacking and keeping their booty himself instead of returning it to the population at large or into the imperial treasury. Maximian ordered Carausius' arrest and execution, prompting him to flee to Britain. Carausius' support among the British was strong, and at least two British legions ( II Augusta and XX Valeria Victrix ) defected to him, as did some or all of
10767-561: Was dangerous and that precedent existed for dual rulership. Despite their military prowess, both sole-emperors Aurelian and Probus had been easily removed from power. In contrast, just a few years earlier, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled jointly, albeit not for long. Even the first emperor, Augustus , (r. 27 BC–AD 14), had shared power with his colleagues and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) on. The dual system evidently worked well. Around 287, after Maximian's appointment as Augustus ,
10878-434: Was declared Augustus by Maximian. Maximian returned to Rome in the winter of 307–8 but soon fell out with his son and in early 308 challenged his right to rule before an assembly of Roman soldiers. He spoke of Rome's sickly government, disparaged Maxentius for having weakened it, and ripped the imperial toga from Maxentius' shoulders. He expected the soldiers to recognize him, but they sided with Maxentius; afterward, Maximian
10989-482: Was forced to leave Italy in disgrace. On 11 November 308, to resolve the political instability, Galerius called Diocletian (out of retirement) and Maximian to a general council meeting at the military city of Carnuntum on the upper Danube. There, Maximian was forced to abdicate again and Constantine was again demoted to Caesar , with Maximinus the Caesar in the east. Licinius , a loyal military companion to Galerius,
11100-534: Was jealous of Constantine's power, and on 28 October 306, he persuaded a cohort of imperial guardsmen to declare him Augustus . Uncomfortable with sole leadership, Maxentius sent a set of imperial robes to Maximian and saluted him as "Augustus for the second time", offering him theoretic equal rule but less actual power and a lower rank. Galerius refused to recognize Maxentius and sent Severus with an army to Rome to depose him. As many of Severus' soldiers had served under Maximian, and had taken Maxentius' bribes, most of
11211-544: Was left to die of disease and hunger, while Maximian intercepted and defeated the second. He then established a Rhine headquarters in preparation for future campaigns, either at Moguntiacum ( Mainz , Germany ), Augusta Treverorum ( Trier , Germany), or Colonia Agrippina ( Cologne , Germany). Although most of Gaul was pacified, regions bordering the English Channel still suffered from Frankish and Saxon piracy . The emperors Probus and Carinus had begun to fortify
11322-423: Was less puritanical in his tastes, and took advantage of the sensual opportunities his position as emperor offered. Lactantius charged that Maximian defiled senators' daughters and traveled with young virgins to satisfy his unending lust, though Lactantius' credibility is undermined by his general hostility towards pagans. Maximian had two children with his Syrian wife, Eutropia : Maxentius and Fausta . There
11433-611: Was little resistance. Before retirement, Maximian received one final moment of glory by officiating at the Secular Games in 304. On 1 May 305, in separate ceremonies in Milan and Nicomedia, Diocletian and Maximian retired simultaneously. The succession did not go entirely to Maximian's liking: perhaps because of Galerius' influence, Galerius' former army comrade Severus and Galerius' nephew Maximinus (both of whom had long military careers) were appointed Caesar , thus excluding Constantine and Maxentius. Maximian quickly soured to
11544-498: Was more aggressive in his relationship with the Senate than Constantius, and Lactantius contends that he terrorized senators, to the point of falsely charging and subsequently executing several, including the prefect of Rome in 301–2. In contrast, Constantius kept up good relations with the senatorial aristocracy and spent his time in active defense of the empire. He took up arms against the Franks in 300 or 301 and in 302 – while Maximian
11655-439: Was not an ideal solution. Furthermore, it was risky for an emperor to delegate power in his absence to a subordinate general, who might win a victory and then be proclaimed as a rival emperor himself by his troops (which often happened). All members of the imperial college, on the other hand, were of essentially equal rank, despite two being senior emperors and two being junior; their functions and authorities were also equal. Under
11766-430: Was on campaign against the Franks. Maximian had been sent south to Arles with part of Constantine's army to defend against attacks by Maxentius in southern Gaul. In Arles, Maximian announced that Constantine was dead and took up the imperial purple . Although Maximian offered bribes to all who would support him, most of Constantine's army remained loyal, and Maximian was compelled to leave the city. Constantine soon heard of
11877-541: Was resting in Italy – continued to campaign against Germanic tribes on the Upper Rhine. According to Aurelius Victor , he also built a palace near his home town of Sirmium . In addition to the imperial palace in Sirmium another palace has been found at Glac, which may be that of Maximian. Diocletian's vicennalia , the 20-year anniversary of his reign, was celebrated in Rome in 303. Some evidence suggests that it
11988-494: Was struck in which Constantine would marry Maximian's younger daughter Fausta and be elevated to Augustan rank in Maxentius' secessionist regime. In return, Constantine would reaffirm the old family alliance between Maximian and Constantius, and support Maxentius' cause in Italy but would remain neutral in the war with Galerius. The deal was sealed with a double ceremony in Trier in late 307, at which Constantine married Fausta and
12099-469: Was then that Diocletian exacted a promise from Maximian to retire together, passing their titles as Augusti to the Caesars Constantius and Galerius. Presumably Maximian's son Maxentius and Constantius's son Constantine – children raised in Nicomedia together – would then become the new Caesars . While Maximian might not have wished to retire, Diocletian was still in control and there
12210-466: Was uneducated and preferred action to thought. The panegyric of 289, after comparing his actions to Scipio Africanus ' victories over Hannibal during the Second Punic War , suggested that Maximian had never heard of them. His ambitions were purely military; he left politics to Diocletian. The Christian rhetor Lactantius suggested that Maximian shared Diocletian's basic attitudes but
12321-463: Was unfavorable, and the Berbers were skilled at guerrilla warfare , but Maximian pressed on. Apparently wishing to inflict as much punishment as possible on the tribes, he devastated previously secure land, killed as many as he could, and drove the remainder back into the Sahara . His campaign was concluded by early 298 and, on 10 March, he made a triumphal entry into Carthage. Inscriptions there record
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