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75-619: Les Trente Glorieuses ( French pronunciation: [le tʁɑ̃t ɡlɔʁjøz] ; 'The Glorious Thirty') was a thirty-year period of economic growth in France between 1945 and 1975, following the end of the Second World War. The name was first used by the French demographer Jean Fourastié , who coined the term in 1979 with the publication of his book Les Trente Glorieuses, ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975 ('The Glorious Thirty, or

150-623: A Bachelor's degree before admission to a J.D. program to study law for three years. A research dissertation is not required for the J.D., but the American Bar Association issued a Council Statement stating that the J.D. should be considered equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes. In recent years, some universities also have developed other new interdisciplinary professional doctorates that may combine law and other specialized or applied fields. One example of this

225-666: A United Nations expert for the Mexican government and to the economic commission for Latin America . Fourastié was a professor at the Institut d'Etudes Politiques de Paris until his retirement in 1978. He became professor (Directeur d'études) at the VIth section of the École Pratique des Hautes Études (later EHESS) in 1951, and from 1960 he held the chair of Economics and Industrial Statistics at CNAM . In 1966, Fourastié became

300-412: A thesis prepared by the doctoral candidate under the supervision of a tutor. The thesis must be examined by a board of five professors, holders of the title of doctor or of a livre docência . Two of the members of the board must be professors from another institution. In most Brazilian Law Schools, the candidates are also required to earn a minimum number of credits. Unlike the rules of other countries,

375-422: A D.C.L ( Doctor of Civil Law ). The differences largely reflect the divide between Canada's two legal systems (the common law and the civil law ). Faculties that teach in the civil law tradition grant LL.D degrees, whereas those in the common law tradition grant either Ph.D.s or J.S.Ds. The York University Ph.D. in law was formerly termed Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.), until the name was changed in 2002. In

450-461: A Doctor of Law. In France, the Doctor of Law degree ( doctorat en droit ) is a PhD ( diplôme national de doctorat ). It entitles the holder to the title of doctor ( docteur ), abbreviated as Dr . It lasts a minimum of three years, but in fact takes an average of five or six years to complete. The PhD in law is required to teach at the university level as a maître de conférences (approximate to

525-484: A Master of Laws course and a Doctor of Laws course in immediate succession, that person would become a doctor about seven years (five in current trend) after graduating from the Law School. On the other hand, in the rare cases in which a bachelor of Laws is allowed to pursue a "direct" doctorate, he is usually allowed five (four in current trend) years time to complete the doctoral course. Sometimes however, depending on

600-484: A PhD in law will add the title after their Mr. title (Mr. Dr. Anyone), while a person with an LLM title gaining a PhD in a different discipline (e.g. economics) will add the Dr title before their law master title (Dr. Mr. Someone). In South Africa the doctorate in law is offered as a research doctorate of at least two years duration, in various specialised areas of law. In general, South African universities offer either

675-430: A capacity and title of Docent (Doc.), similar to German Dozent , Privatdozent or US assistant professor . Docent is not a degree, but a scholar's title. Only a docent can be appointed a professor through a special procedure. Unlike Germany (and unlike the traditional Czech practice), a professor is not a function (a seat, Cathedra) at a university, but a scholarly title. This leads to many problems, especially

750-540: A certified lawyer after completing the requirements as regulated in Indonesian Law Number 18 of 2003 concerning Advocates but it is not permissible for someone with the status of a civil servant, member of the military, police, prosecutor, judge or state official. In Italy, the title of "Magister Doctor of Law" ( Dottore magistrale in Giurisprudenza ) is the title given to students who complete

825-458: A columnist for the daily newspaper Le Figaro . Until 1968 he presented the monthly program "Quart d'heure" ("quarter hour") on French state television. In 1968, he was elected to the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques , and became its president in 1978. In 1981, he was named president of the central administrative commission of the Institut de France . The information on this page

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900-469: A dissertation, which serves as an original contribution to the scholarly field of law. The S.J.D. degree is primarily a degree pursued by foreign-trained lawyers who seek to teach in the United States. Few American-trained lawyers pursue an S.J.D. as it is not required for obtaining a faculty position at a U.S. law school. The overwhelming majority of U.S. law school tenure-track faculty have only

975-491: A distinct form of lawyer who were empowered to act as advocates in civil law courts. The Doctors had their own Society called Doctors' Commons , but following reforms in the nineteenth century their exclusive rights of audience were shared with barristers, and the last member of the college died in 1912. Due to the possession of a doctorate, the Doctors of Law had precedence equal to that of a Serjeant-at-Law and for this reason

1050-434: A doctoral degree). In Canada, there are several academic law-related doctorates: the Doctor of Laws (LL.D.); Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science (J.S.D./S.J.D); Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.); and the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.). The Doctor of Jurisprudence (Juris Doctor or J.D.) is the professional doctorate degree that is usually required for admissions to post-graduate studies in law. The first law degree

1125-459: A doctoral degree. However, the Doctor of Laws is still only the first step to tenure at German law schools. Despite the initiative to establish a junior professorship with tenure option after five to seven years, and special professorships specializing in teaching ( Lehrprofessur ), to become a university professor of law a habilitation ( de iure not an academic degree) is still mandatory at most German law schools. In Indonesia, Doctor of Law

1200-494: A doctoral dissertation. The dissertation usually takes the form of a monograph at least of 250 pages in length, or of a series of published articles. A successful oral disputation is also required. It usually takes at least four years to complete the degree. The degree of the Doctor of Laws does not qualify its holder for judicial offices. Instead, the degree of the Master of Laws ( Finnish : Oikeustieteen maisteri ; Swedish uses

1275-517: A growth rate of 4% between 1950 and 1970, until settling back to 1.5–2% from 1970 onward. Jean Fourasti%C3%A9 Jean Fourastié received his elementary and secondary education at the private Catholic College of Juilly from 1914 to 1925. Then in Paris, he boarded at École Massillon and enrolled in classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles at Lycée Saint-Louis . He was admitted into École Centrale Paris , from which he graduated in 1930, but

1350-683: A member of the "1985 working group" of the Commissariat. In 1948, Fourastié became vice president of the scientific and technical committee of the European Economic Cooperation Organization (predecessor of the OECD ). From 1954 to 1957, he led the European Coal and Steel Community 's study group on the conditions and effects of technical progress in the steel industry . In 1957 he was appointed as

1425-416: A module in research methodology , the submission of a research proposal and an oral examination . The thesis will demonstrate evidence of in-depth independent research and understanding of the topic, and constitute an original scientific contribution. Admission is usually on the basis of an LLM , and in some cases an LLB . In Sweden , the Doctor of Laws (LLD) is the highest academic degree in law. It

1500-510: A newly qualified lawyer was to self-stylise as 'Doctor' they would be supported, as a matter of convention. The Netherlands does not distinguish doctorates between disciplines. A legal scholar pursuing a doctorate will receive the PhD degree. For holders of a master in law (LLM) in Dutch indicated with Mr., the Dr. title can be added to their title. Unique to law degrees is that a legal scholar with

1575-448: A portfolio of advanced research. It is also often awarded honoris causa to public figures (typically those associated with politics or the law) whom the university wishes to honour. In most British universities, the degree is styled "Doctor of Laws" and abbreviated LLD; however, some universities award instead the degree of Doctor of Civil Law, abbreviated DCL, or Doctor of Law, still abbreviated LLD. In former years, Doctors of Law were

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1650-416: A postgraduate course to attain the degree of Master of Laws (to attain that degree one must write and defend a dissertation before a panel of three professors, bearing the title of master, doctor or a "livre docência, and also complete credits), and only then, after being a Master of Laws, one will apply for admission to a doctoral course. There are, however, a few universities that allow "direct" admission to

1725-472: A traditional and popular badge degree, especially useful for attorneys. In older times with no master's degree, JUDr. served as the only law degree; it was roughly equivalent to today's master's degree, plus a special exam. Requirements for obtaining a JUDr degree are a highly rated Master (Mgr.) degree in law, the compilation of a thesis – including successful defense – and passing an oral exam called Rigorosum . The thesis itself

1800-453: Is "intended for individuals who have demonstrated evidence of superior scholarly potential." The National Association of Legal Professionals states that the S.J.D./D.J.S. is "the most advanced or terminal law degree that would follow the earning of the LL.M. and J.D. degrees." It typically requires three to five years to complete and requires an advanced study in law as a scientific discipline and

1875-457: Is Northeastern University's Doctor of Law and Policy (D.L.P.) degree. Additionally, other universities award a higher postdoctoral research degree in law, the Doctor of Juridical Science (or Scientiae Juridicae Doctor), abbreviated as S.J.D. or D.J.S. Applicants for S.J.D. programs must first earn a J.D., and some programs require both a J.D. and an LL.M. before admission. Similar to the Ph.D.,

1950-560: Is a research degree, which combines 240 credit hours (or equivalent of four full-time years of work). Candidates have the option to complete a dissertation or a monograph of a series of published articles. Although not required to practice law, the LLD is a prerequisite for an academic career. In the UK , the degree of Doctor of Laws is a higher doctorate , ranking above the PhD , awarded upon submission of

2025-540: Is also sometimes called Rigorosum . Many JUDr. theses were based on the students' previous Master theses; however, nowadays universities require that the dissertation work be completely original. Doctoral studies leading to PhD degree are different from the JUDr exam. Internally undertaken PhD studies last 3–5 years; the PhD student is at the same time a teacher at the university. External PhD studies may be up to 8 years long. PhD students are obliged to pass some exams during

2100-440: Is an undergraduate degree that of itself is not sufficient for admission into any of the legal professions. A one-year full-time taught post-graduate diploma of Notary Public (N.P.) is required after the LL.B. for admission to the profession of notary public , while a taught post-graduate diploma of Legal Procurator (L.P.) is required for admission to the profession of legal procurator . A legal procurator has rights of audience in

2175-703: Is awarded by several universities only as an honorary degree , but when awarded by a law school is an earned degree). Of the universities in Canada that offer earned academic doctorates in law, four (University of Ottawa, University of Montreal, Laval University, and University of Quebec at Montreal) offer LL.Ds, five (University of Alberta, University of British Columbia, Osgoode Hall Law School of York University, Dalhousie University, and University of Victoria) offer Ph.D.s, only one (University of Toronto, ) offers J.S.D./S.J.D degrees (Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science), and one (McGill University) offers

2250-414: Is conferred based on a thesis consisting of a suitable body of original academic research, and an oral examination ( Rigorosum or Disputation ). The thesis must have been published as a book or – less common – as a series of articles in a peer-reviewed law journal before the degree can be formally conferred. Admission usually requires the grade of "Fully Satisfactory" (approximately top quintile of class) in

2325-618: Is distinguished in the German academic system. The Doctor of Both Laws ( Doktor beider Rechte ), awarded as Dr. iur. utr. ( Doctor iuris utriusque , conferred e.g. in Würzburg) is rare, since it means considering both the secular law of the Civil Law system and Canonical Law . A doctorate solely in the latter area is the degree of Dr. iur. can. ( Doctor iuris canonici ). Approximately ten percent of German law graduates hold

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2400-435: Is known as Doktor Hukum and is the highest academic level in legal education. The writing of the title is simply abbreviated as Dr., as also applies to fields of education other than Law. Concentration in the field of law according to the choice concerned, for example Constitutional Law, Civil Law, Criminal Law. International Law or more specifically, for example Business Law, Marriage Law, Transportation Law, Labor Law, etc. In

2475-585: Is partially translated from the equivalent page in French fr:Jean Fourastié licensed under the Creative Commons/Attribution Sharealike [1] . History of contributions can be checked here: [2] Doctor of law A Doctor of Law is a doctorate in legal studies . Other variations of a doctorate in law include Doctor of Juridical Science , Juris Doctor , Doctor of Philosophy in Law, and Legum Doctor . In Argentina

2550-399: Is the highest academic degree in law available. In a few universities there is a higher title known as livre docência , like the habilitation in some European countries. However, this higher title is not a degree in the strict sense, because livre docência nowadays is an internal title, that applies solely within the institution granting it. In the past, livre docência was a degree in

2625-488: The Czech Republic and Slovakia the Doctor is a postgraduate degree in two types – as a professional degree in law (JUDr) and a research doctorate (PhD). JUDr, Juris Utriusque Doctor (' Doctor of Both Laws ' i.e. Civil [secular] and Church [Canon] laws) is a degree with a tradition of several centuries, originally the highest possible degree. Nowadays, its scholarly importance is quite limited, but it serves as

2700-571: The Latin : Juris magister ) is the requirement for the membership of the Finnish Bar Association and for judicial offices. As the doctoral programs for the doctoral degree are, in principle, open for the holders of all master's degrees, the possession of the degree of the Doctor of Laws is not a guarantee for the possession of the Master of Laws degree. However, it is very seldom that someone who has not graduated in law graduates for

2775-473: The PhD or the LLD , with no significant difference between these. (At UCT , UKZN and Wits , the PhD is the research doctorate, while the LLD is the higher doctorate ; SU and UWC offer the LLD to law graduates, and the PhD to other graduates researching a legal-related topic). In order to obtain the degree, the student will complete a thesis under the guidance of a supervisor, after completion of

2850-624: The Trente Glorieuses . Over this thirty-year period, France's economy grew rapidly like economies of other developed countries within the framework of the Marshall Plan , such as West Germany , Italy , and Japan . From 1946 to 1950, France, paralyzed by an obsolete economy and infrastructures, did not achieve real growth, and living conditions remained very difficult after the war and the penury which resulted from it. The cost of living rose. Rationing (present until 1947–1948) and

2925-466: The University of Malta , Malta's national university. At least three years of previous law study were required for entry. Students were required to complete coursework in a number of core areas of law, as well as to submit a thesis which is to be "an original work on the approved subject or other contribution to the knowledge showing that he/she has carried out sufficient research therein". It confers

3000-519: The University of Oxford , award a Doctor of Civil Law degree instead. In South Africa the LL.D. is awarded based upon research and completion of a dissertation; the LL.D. may also be awarded as an honorary degree based upon contributions to society; see South Africa , below . In Finland , the Doctor of Laws ( Finnish : Oikeustieteen tohtori , OTT; Swedish : Juris doktor , JD) is the highest academic degree in law, based on 60 credits of course studies and, most importantly, successful completion of

3075-480: The civil service until 1951. During World War II , Fourastié kept working for the state under Vichy France , while keeping distance from direct collaboration with Germany's Nazi regime . In January 1941, he started giving a course on insurance at the Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers (CNAM), replacing his ministry colleague Maxime Malinski who was Jewish and thus had been victim of

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3150-514: The 1940 Vichy anti-Jewish legislation . Fourastié's course met instant success with CNAM students. He also taught general accounting at École Libre des Sciences Politiques between 1941 and 1943. In early 1942 he briefly served in the cabinet (private office) of Vichy Finance Minister Yves Bouthillier . In 1941 and 1943, he participated in the committee chaired by Auguste Detœuf that created France's General Accounting Framework ( French : Plan Comptable Général ), itself largely modeled on

3225-464: The Brazilian norms governing the grant of doctoral titles do not require the publication of the thesis as a precondition for the award of the degree. Nevertheless, copies of the thesis must be delivered to the institution's library. Usually, doctoral thesis are published by specialized editors after the grant of the doctoral title. If one obtains a doctoral title in a foreign country, one cannot enjoy

3300-671: The Doctor of Laws or Doctor of Juridical Sciences is the highest academic qualification in the field of Jurisprudence. To obtain the doctoral degree the applicant must have previously achieved, at least the undergraduate degree of Attorney . (Título de Abogado). The doctorates in Jurisprudence in Argentina might have different denominations as is described as follow: In Brazil, the Doctor of Laws degree, known in Portuguese as Doutor em Direito or Doutor em Ciências Jurídicas ,

3375-661: The French state ( French : commissaire-contrôleur des compagnies d'assurances ). He stayed two years at the Octroi de Paris , a low-level bureaucratic position, and in 1934 joined the Direction du contrôle de l'Etat sur les assurances , then part of the French Labor Ministry . He was instrumental in the adoption on 28 July 1939 of a mandatory accounting framework for insurance companies, France's first-ever attempt at accounting standard-setting . He would stay in

3450-438: The German docent , British reader or Commonwealth systems' associate professor ). To become Professor of Law , holders of a PhD in law have to meet additional requirements such as passing an additional competitive exam: the agrégation de droit . Only the first year ("master" 1 or maîtrise ) of the master's degree in law is necessary to pass the bar exam, but, from 2025, a master's degree will be compulsory for admission to

3525-435: The German accounting framework of 1937 championed by Hermann Göring . In September–October 1944, the ad hoc body that investigated acts of collaboration ( French : commission d'épuration du ministère des Finances ) cleared Fourastié of any charges, following a process in which Malinski defended Fourastié's innocence. Fourastié then taught at the newly created École nationale d'administration and played an enhanced role in

3600-477: The Invisible Revolution from 1946 to 1975'). The term is derived from Les Trois Glorieuses ('The Glorious Three'), the three days of revolution on 27–29 July 1830 in France. As early as 1944, Charles de Gaulle introduced a dirigiste economic policy, which included substantial state-directed control over a capitalist economy. This was followed by thirty years of unprecedented growth, known as

3675-642: The Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree rather than the LL.B.; the University of Saskatchewan replaced its LL.B. with a J.D. in 2010, because the Canadian LL.B. is equivalent to the J.D. All Canadian J.D. programs are three years, and all (except those in Quebec ) have similar mandatory first-year courses: In "public", "constitutional," or "state" law; tort law ; contract law ; criminal law , and some sort of " professional practice " course. Beyond first year and

3750-523: The S.J.D. is a research doctorate and has been described as the "highest degree in law" by the University of Virginia, as well as the "terminal degree in law" by Indiana University and the "most advanced law degree" by Harvard Law School. It has also been called the "most advanced law degree" by Yale Law School, Georgetown Law, New York University, and Stanford University. The University of Connecticut School of Law explains that this specific degree

3825-527: The academic privileges of the title in Brazil unless the title be first validated by a Brazilian University. In that case, the doctor asking for the validation of the title will present his thesis and other documents relating to his foreign doctoral course to a board examiners of the Brazilian University and the examiners will then pass judgement on whether the work done by the candidate adheres to

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3900-585: The bar after passing the bar exam. The Doctor of Laws ( Doktor der Rechte ) is the terminal degree in law, abbreviated as Dr. iur. ( Doctor iuris ) or Dr. jur. ( Doctor juris ). The terminology varies: while most universities refer to the degree as Doctor of Laws ( Doktor der Rechte [pl.], e.g. Munich , Münster , Berlin (HU) , Cologne , Tübingen , Göttingen ), some others refer to it either as Doctor of Jurisprudence ( Doktor der Rechtswissenschaft , e.g. Heidelberg , Hamburg ) or Doctor of Law ( Doktor des Rechts [sing.], e.g. Berlin (FU) ). It

3975-555: The convention remains that advocates holding junior doctorates (such as Doctors of Philosophy) should not be addressed as "doctor" in an English court. In 1953, a case was brought under long-dormant law in the High Court of Chivalry . The opening arguments in that case were by George Drewry Squibb who argued, to the satisfaction of the court, that since the modern class of Doctors of Laws were no longer trained as advocates, their role must necessarily be performed by barristers. This

4050-530: The doctoral course without previous completion of the Master's course in exceptional circumstances. Thus, in rare cases, a bachelor of Laws (i.e., a holder of the first professional degree), can be admitted directly to a doctoral course. Usually, one is allowed three years time to complete a Master of Laws degree, and four years time to complete the doctoral course. There has been a shift towards shortening these periods to two and three years respectively. So, if one were to graduate from Law School and immediately enter

4125-588: The education system in Indonesia, the Doctor of Law degree is included in Strata (Level) 3 and is pursued after completing Masters (Strata 2-post graduate) and Bachelor of Law (Strata 1-undergraduate) education. Graduates of the Strata 2 program in the field of Law are called Magister Hukum - M.H (Masters of Laws) and graduates of the Strata 1 program are called Sarjana Hukum - S.H (Bachelors of Laws). Everyone with Bachelors of Laws degree holder may apply to be

4200-624: The five-year Laurea magistrale degree. Despite the adoption of the Bologna process , in Italy law remains a field that retains the traditional Italian system. Once a prospective lawyer has been awarded the Magister Doctor of Law and worked 18 months as a trainee lawyer, he or she is required to pass a state bar examination in order to be licensed to practice as an attorney at law ( Avvocato ). Previously, dottore in giurisprudenza

4275-410: The fullness of the term, and a professor bearing the title would enjoy the privileges of livre docência if he transferred from one institution to another; there are still living professors who hold the "old" livre docência degrees; but all new titles of that name only confer privileges within the institution granting it. The doctoral degree is awarded upon the completion and the successful defense of

4350-463: The housing crisis accentuated the problems of a people still scarred by World War II. These decades of economic prosperity combined high productivity with high average wages and high consumption, and were also characterized by a highly developed system of social benefits. According to various studies, the real purchasing power of the average French worker's salary went up by 170% between 1950 and 1975, while overall private consumption increased by 174% in

4425-591: The law course resulted from the implementation of the Bologna Process , removed the Doctorate of Laws (LLD) title and replace it with a second cycle degree, Master of Advocacy (M.Adv). This raised discussion as to whether newly qualified lawyers would be referred to as 'Doctor', as had been the norm. Following representation from law student organisations, the Chamber of Advocates came to the agreement that if

4500-480: The lower courts, a profession that was existent in Malta as early, and even prior to 1553. All three designations also require members to be holders of a warrant issued by the president of Malta, obtainable after examination, as well as a minimum of one year of work experience in that profession. It is not possible for a Maltese lawyer to hold a warrant in more than one of the professions at a time. As of 2014 changes to

4575-499: The minimum requirements for graduation, course selection is elective, with various concentrations such as business law, international law, natural resources law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law. After the first law degree, one may pursue a second, the Masters of Laws (LL.M.) and after that, the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) or Doctor of Juridical Science or Doctor of Legal Science (J.S.D./S.J.D), at some Canadian universities. (The LL.D.

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4650-425: The minimum standards of quality that are usually required by a Brazilian university when granting doctoral degrees. Admission to doctoral courses is almost universally reserved to holders of a master's degree (the Master's in Brazil is a graduate degree and is not the first professional degree). Therefore, a bachelor of Laws (a bearer of the first professional degree), seeking the degree of doctor must usually complete

4725-404: The period 1950–74. The French standard of living , which had been damaged by both World Wars , became one of the world's highest. The population also became far more urbanized; many rural départements experienced a population decline while the larger metropolitan areas grew considerably, especially that of Paris . Ownership of various household goods and amenities increased considerably, while

4800-503: The phenomenon of so-called "flying professors", who are teaching at two or three universities at the same time and to the decline of academic life. In the United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , and Europe , the degree is a higher doctorate usually awarded on the basis of exceptionally insightful and distinctive publications that contain significant and original contributions to the study of law. Some universities, such as

4875-463: The renewed Plan Comptable committee chaired from 1946 by Robert Lacoste . In 1945, Jean Monnet hired him to serve as an economic advisor on the Commissariat général du Plan , serving the country's economic reconstruction under the direct authority of the Prime Minister of France . He served four terms as president of the workforce modernization commission, and in 1961 he was chosen as

4950-424: The student's first Staatsexamen (the Master's level first professional degree), or , alternatively, in the second Staatsexamen (the German equivalent to the bar exam , which to pass is itself no requirement for the doctorate, though practically universal for jurist careers in academia), or a relative grade A (highest decile of the comparison group) Master of Laws . No LL.D. to complement an LL.M.

5025-413: The student's prowess or previous knowledge, it is possible to get a master's degree or a doctoral degree in less time, if one were to complete all credits and write the dissertation/thesis in less time. Usually, universities require a minimum time for this (normally, 15 months of credits + 3 months of dissertation qualification for a master's degree, 24 months of credits + 6 months of thesis qualification for

5100-464: The studies and mainly to work on their dissertation. The PhD is intended basically for candidates interested in an academic career, and it gives them the right to teach at a university. The Czech system is in many ways similar to the German and Austrian systems. Therefore, a PhD degree is necessary for habilitation procedure. Through habilitation, the Doctor of Law who submits his habilitation work (similar to German Habilitationsschrift ) can be given

5175-410: The title of Doctor , which in Malta is used to address a holder of the degree. Up until 2014, the LL.D. was one of the requirements for admission to the profession of advocate in Malta (an advocate, as opposed to a legal procurator, has rights of representation in superior courts). Practising lawyers are of three designations – notary, legal procurator and advocate. The Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.) degree

5250-404: The wages of the French working class rose significantly as the economy became more prosperous. As noted by the historians Jean Blondel and Donald Geoffrey Charlton in 1974, If it is still the case that France lags in the number of its telephones, working-class housing has improved beyond recognition and the various 'gadgets' of the consumer society—from television to motor cars—are now purchased by

5325-574: The working class on an even more avid basis than in other Western European countries. In his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century , French economist Thomas Piketty describes the Trente Glorieuses as an exceptional 'catch up' period following the two world wars. He cites statistics showing that normal growth in wealthy countries is about 1.5–2%, whereas in Europe growth dropped to 0.5% between 1913 and 1950, and then 'caught up' with

5400-551: Was because Victorian reforms, which had unified the other classes of court attorney into the single profession of barrister, had overlooked the Doctors of Law. In the United States, the most common Doctor of Law degree is the Juris Doctor (or Doctor of Jurisprudence ), abbreviated as J.D. It is the professional degree for lawyers, having replaced the Bachelor of Laws in the 20th century after law schools began to require

5475-540: Was known until recently as the Bachelor of Laws (LL.B.). However, since law schools in Canada generally insist on a prior degree or some equivalent in order to grant admission, it was a more advanced degree than the LL.B. degrees awarded by programs abroad, which would accept high school graduates. Although despite this it is, along with other first professional degrees , considered to be a bachelor's degree-level qualification. The majority of Canadian universities now grant

5550-404: Was not attracted by an engineering career. Instead, he pursued studies at École Libre des Sciences Politiques where his professors included Charles Rist and Jean Romieu  [ fr ] . He received a law degree in 1933, followed by doctor of law In 1937 with a thesis on insurance supervision. In 1932, Fourastié successfully passed the examination to become an insurance supervisor for

5625-522: Was the title given to the students that completed the old (four-year) course of studies in law. After the five-year degree, it is possible to enroll in a Ph.D. course in a specific field of law (" Dottorato "), and the title obtained is " Dottore di ricerca " (a Ph.D.). In Malta , the European Union 's smallest member state, the LL.D. was a doctorate-level academic degree in law requiring at least three years of post-graduate full-time study at

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