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55-571: Cheracebus Callicebus Plecturocebus The titis , or titi monkeys , are New World monkeys of the subfamily Callicebinae, which contains three extant genera: Cheracebus , Callicebus , and Plecturocebus. This subfamily also contains the extinct genera Miocallicebus , Homunculus , and Carlocebus . Titi monkeys live in South America , from Colombia , Ecuador and Peru , east through Brazil , and south to Bolivia and northern Paraguay . Depending on species, titis have

110-504: A controlled vocabulary of contributor roles. Known as CRediT ( Contributor Roles Taxonomy ) , this is an example of a flat, non-hierarchical taxonomy; however, it does include an optional, broad classification of the degree of contribution: lead , equal or supporting . Amy Brand and co-authors summarise their intended outcome as: Identifying specific contributions to published research will lead to appropriate credit, fewer author disputes, and fewer disincentives to collaboration and

165-614: A " universal language " was frequently examined in the 17th century, also notably by the English philosopher John Wilkins in his work An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language (1668), from which the classification scheme in Roget 's Thesaurus ultimately derives. Taxonomy in biology encompasses the description, identification, nomenclature, and classification of organisms. Uses of taxonomy include: Uses of taxonomy in business and economics include: Vegas et al. make

220-616: A 1997 article in JAMA , the Journal of the American Medical Association for a radical conceptual and systematic change, to reflect the realities of multiple authorship and to buttress accountability. We propose dropping the outmoded notion of author in favor of the more useful and realistic one of contributor. In 2012, several major academic and scientific publishing bodies mounted Project CRediT to develop

275-400: A certain type (for example, John is a bachelor ), while universally quantified conditionals express the notion that a type is a subtype of another type (for example, " A dog is a mammal" , which means the same as " All dogs are mammals" ). The "has-a" relationship is quite different: an elephant has a trunk; a trunk is a part, not a subtype of elephant. The study of part-whole relationships

330-444: A compelling case to advance the knowledge in the field of software engineering through the use of taxonomies. Similarly, Ore et al. provide a systematic methodology to approach taxonomy building in software engineering related topics. Several taxonomies have been proposed in software testing research to classify techniques, tools, concepts and artifacts. The following are some example taxonomies: Engström et al. suggest and evaluate

385-415: A head and body length of 23–46 centimetres (9.1–18.1 in), and a tail, which is longer than the head and body, of 26–56 centimetres (10–22 in). The different titi species vary substantially in coloring, but resemble each other in most other physical ways. They have long, soft fur, and it is usually reddish, brownish, grayish or blackish, and in most species the underside is lighter or more reddish than

440-448: A larger variety of relation types. Mathematically, a hierarchical taxonomy is a tree structure of classifications for a given set of objects. It is also named containment hierarchy . At the top of this structure is a single classification, the root node, that applies to all objects. Nodes below this root are more specific classifications that apply to subsets of the total set of classified objects. The progress of reasoning proceeds from

495-434: A method based on dichotomy, which was rejected by Aristotle and replaced by the method of definitions based on genus, species, and specific difference. The method of facet analysis (cf., faceted classification ) is primarily based on logical division. This approach tends to classify according to "essential" characteristics, a widely discussed and criticized concept (cf., essentialism ). These methods may overall be related to

550-425: A midday nap. Titis are territorial . They live in family groups that consist of parents and their offspring, about two to seven animals in total. They defend their territory by shouting and chasing off intruders but rarely engage in actual fighting. Their grooming and communication is important for the co-operation of the group. They can typically be seen in pairs sitting or sleeping with tails entwined. The diet of

605-490: A single child with multi-parents, for example, "Car" might appear with both parents "Vehicle" and "Steel Mechanisms"; to some however, this merely means that 'car' is a part of several different taxonomies. A taxonomy might also simply be organization of kinds of things into groups, or an alphabetical list; here, however, the term vocabulary is more appropriate. In current usage within knowledge management , taxonomies are considered narrower than ontologies since ontologies apply

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660-600: A taxonomy is to help users more easily find what they are searching for. This may be effected in ways that include a library classification system and a search engine taxonomy . The word was coined in 1813 by the Swiss botanist A. P. de Candolle and is irregularly compounded from the Greek τάξις , taxis 'order' and νόμος , nomos 'law', connected by the French form -o- ; the regular form would be taxinomy , as used in

715-408: Is mereology . Taxonomies are often represented as is-a hierarchies where each level is more specific than the level above it (in mathematical language is "a subset of" the level above). For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as mammal , which is a subset of animal , and dogs and cats , which are subsets of mammal . This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because

770-416: Is an approach based solely on observable, measurable similarities and differences of the things to be classified. Classification is based on overall similarity: The elements that are most alike in most attributes are classified together. But it is based on statistics, and therefore does not fulfill the criteria of logical division (e.g. to produce classes, that are mutually exclusive and jointly coextensive with

825-511: Is important to notice that empiricism is not the same as empirical study, but a certain ideal of doing empirical studies. With the exception of the logical approaches they all are based on empirical studies, but are basing their studies on different philosophical principles). (3) Historical and hermeneutical approaches including Ereshefsky's "historical classification" and (4) Pragmatic, functionalist and teleological approaches (not covered by Ereshefsky). In addition there are combined approaches (e.g.,

880-399: Is not assigned to the concept of France (whatever that might be).” Smith's alternative to concepts as units is based on a realist orientation, when scientists make successful claims about the types of entities that exist in reality, they are referring to objectively existing entities which realist philosophers call universals or natural kinds. Smith's main argument - with which many followers of

935-399: Is of little use, since we seldom have anything to affirm in common of the plants which have a given number of stamens and pistils." "The ends of scientific classification are best answered, when the objects are formed into groups respecting which a greater number of general propositions can be made, and those propositions more important, than could be made respecting any other groups into which

990-910: Is referred to is that in biological classification the anatomical traits of organisms is one kind of classification, the classification in relation to the evolution of species is another (in the section below, we expand these two fundamental sorts of classification to four). Hull adds that in biological classification, evolution supplies the theoretical orientation. Ereshefsky (2000) presented and discussed three general philosophical schools of classification: "essentialism, cluster analysis, and historical classification. Essentialism sorts entities according to causal relations rather than their intrinsic qualitative features." These three categories may, however, be considered parts of broader philosophies. Four main approaches to classification may be distinguished: (1) logical and rationalist approaches including "essentialism"; (2) empiricist approaches including cluster analysis (It

1045-412: Is the classification of items which emphasis the goals, purposes, consequences, interests, values and politics of classification. It is, for example, classifying animals into wild animals, pests, domesticated animals and pets. Also kitchenware (tools, utensils, appliances, dishes, and cookware used in food preparation, or the serving of food) is an example of a classification which is not based on any of

1100-412: Is the father who cares for the young, carrying it and bringing it to the mother only for nursing. Fathers tend to engage in more grooming, food-sharing, inspecting, aggression and playing with infants than mothers. The young are weaned after 5 months and are fully grown after two years. After three or more years, they leave their family group in order to find a mate. While the life expectancy of most species

1155-412: Is the systematic classification involved in the design and utilization of taxonomic schemes such as the biological classification of animals and plants by genus and species. Two of the predominant types of relationships in knowledge-representation systems are predication and the universally quantified conditional . Predication relationships express the notion that an individual entity is an example of

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1210-507: Is unclear, the members of the genus Cheracebus may live for up to 12 years in the wild, while members of the P. moloch group have been known to live for more than 25 years in captivity. They make elaborate, powerful vocal duets used in long-range communication. The number of known species of titis has doubled in recent years, with eight, P. stephennashi , P. bernhardi , P. caquetensis , P. aureipalatii, P. miltoni , P. urubambensis , P. grovesi , and P. parecis being described from

1265-458: The Amazon basin since 2000. Furthermore, the most recent review uses the phylogenetic species concept (thereby not recognizing the concept of subspecies ) rather than the 'traditional' biological species concept . The classification presented here is therefore very different from the classifications used twenty years ago. The naming rights to a recently discovered species were auctioned off (with

1320-426: The classification of organisms on the basis of shared characteristics. Today it also has a more general sense. It may refer to the classification of things or concepts, as well as to the principles underlying such work. Thus a taxonomy can be used to organize species, documents, videos or anything else. A taxonomy organizes taxonomic units known as "taxa" (singular "taxon")." Many are hierarchies . One function of

1375-406: The type species Cheracebus lugens , are sometimes referred to as widow titi monkeys. Historically, titis were monogeneric, comprising only the genus Callicebus Thomas, 1903 . Owing to the great diversity found across titi monkey species, a new genus-level taxonomy was recently proposed that recognises three genera within the subfamily Callicebinae ; Cheracebus Byrne et al., 2016 for

1430-524: The Atlantic Forest personatus group; and Plecturocebus Byrne et al. (2016) for the Amazonian and Chaco titis of the moloch and donacophilus groups. Cheracebus Cheracebus lucifer Cheracebus lugens Cheracebus medemi Cheracebus regulus Cheracebus torquatus Cheracebus is one of three genera of titi monkeys . Monkeys in this genus, particularly

1485-505: The German mathematician and philosopher Gottfried Leibniz , following the work of the thirteenth-century Majorcan philosopher Ramon Llull on his Ars generalis ultima , a system for procedurally generating concepts by combining a fixed set of ideas, sought to develop an alphabet of human thought . Leibniz intended his characteristica universalis to be an "algebra" capable of expressing all conceptual thought. The concept of creating such

1540-593: The Greek reborrowing ταξινομία . Misplaced Pages categories form a taxonomy, which can be extracted by automatic means. As of 2009 , it has been shown that a manually-constructed taxonomy, such as that of computational lexicons like WordNet , can be used to improve and restructure the Misplaced Pages category taxonomy. In a broader sense, taxonomy also applies to relationship schemes other than parent-child hierarchies, such as network structures . Taxonomies may then include

1595-471: The Netherlands . Historically, titis were monogeneric and formed the genus Callicebus Thomas, 1903. Owing to the great diversity found across titi monkey species, a new genus-level taxonomy was recently proposed that recognises three genera within the subfamily Callicebinae; Cheracebus Byrne et al. (2016) for the species of the torquatus group (Widow titis); Callicebus Thomas, 1903, for species of

1650-799: The above-mentioned three methods, but clearly on pragmatic or functional criteria. Bonaccorsi, et al. (2019) is about the general theory of functional classification and applications of this approach for patent classification. Although the examples may suggest that pragmatic classifications are primitive compared to established scientific classifications, it must be considered in relation to the pragmatic and critical theory of knowledge, which consider all knowledge as influences by interests. Ridley (1986) wrote: "teleological classification. Classification of groups by their shared purposes, or functions, in life - where purpose can be identified with adaptation. An imperfectly worked-out, occasionally suggested, theoretically possible principle of classification that differs from

1705-462: The class they divide). Some people will argue that this is not classification/taxonomy at all, but such an argument must consider the definitions of classification (see above). These methods may overall be related to the empiricist theory of knowledge. Genealogical classification is classification of items according to their common heritage. This must also be done on the basis of some empirical characteristics, but these characteristics are developed by

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1760-422: The close relationship between classification theory and concept theory. A main opponent of concepts as units is Barry Smith. Arp, Smith and Spear (2015) discuss ontologies and criticize the conceptualist understanding. The book writes (7): “The code assigned to France, for example, is ISO 3166 – 2:FR and the code is assigned to France itself — to the country that is otherwise referred to as Frankreich or Ranska. It

1815-436: The concept theory agree - seems to be that classes cannot be determined by introspective methods, but must be based on scientific and scholarly research. Whether units are called concepts or universals, the problem is to decide when a thing (say a "blackbird") should be considered a natural class. In the case of blackbirds, for example, recent DNA analysis have reconsidered the concept (or universal) "blackbird" and found that what

1870-445: The criteria for ordering these basic units into a classification". There is a widespread opinion in knowledge organization and related fields that such classes corresponds to concepts. We can, for example, classify "waterfowls" into the classes "ducks", "geese", and "swans"; we can also say, however, that the concept “waterfowl” is a generic broader term in relation to the concepts "ducks", "geese", and "swans". This example demonstrates

1925-473: The designated subject as being importantly similar to other entities bearing the same designation; that is, we classify them together. Similarly the use of predicative phrases classifies actions or properties as being of a particular kind. We call this conceptual classification, since it refers to the classification involved in conceptualizing our experiences and surroundings" About systematic classification Suppe wrote: "A second, narrower sense of classification

1980-480: The discussion of their relation to the scientific taxonomy can be found in Scott Atran 's Cognitive Foundations of Natural History. Folk taxonomies of organisms have been found in large part to agree with scientific classification, at least for the larger and more obvious species, which means that it is not the case that folk taxonomies are based purely on utilitarian characteristics. In the seventeenth century

2035-471: The funds going to a nonprofit organization ), and the winner was the online casino GoldenPalace.com , as reflected in both the common and scientific name of P. aureipalatii . While this typically is a highly unusual event in scientific classification , the possibility of naming a species of titi in exchange for a sizable donation to a nonprofit foundation was also presented a few years before, resulting in P. bernhardi being named after Prince Bernhard of

2090-427: The general to the more specific. By contrast, in the context of legal terminology, an open-ended contextual taxonomy is employed—a taxonomy holding only with respect to a specific context. In scenarios taken from the legal domain, a formal account of the open-texture of legal terms is modeled, which suggests varying notions of the "core" and "penumbra" of the meanings of a concept. The progress of reasoning proceeds from

2145-555: The historicist theory of knowledge. One of the main schools of historical classification is cladistics , which is today dominant in biological taxonomy, but also applied to other domains. The historical and hermeneutical approaches is not restricted to the development of the object of classification (e.g., animal species) but is also concerned with the subject of classification (the classifiers) and their embeddedness in scientific traditions and other human cultures. Pragmatic classification (and functional and teleological classification)

2200-505: The ideal, he recognized that his own system (at least partly) represented an artificial classification. John Stuart Mill explained the artificial nature of the Linnaean classification and suggested the following definition of a natural classification: "The Linnæan arrangement answers the purpose of making us think together of all those kinds of plants, which possess the same number of stamens and pistils; but to think of them in that manner

2255-621: The influence of the cladistic paradigm - and have demanded new classifications. Smith's example of France demands an explanation. First, France is not a general concept, but an individual concept. Next, the legal definition of France is determined by the conventions that France has made with other countries. It is still a concept, however, as Leclercq (1978) demonstrates with the corresponding concept Europe . Hull (1998) continued: "Two fundamentally different sorts of classification are those that reflect structural organization and those that are systematically related to historical development." What

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2310-765: The larger. Such a hyponym, in turn, may have further subcategories for which it is a hypernym. In the simple biology example, dog is a hypernym with respect to its subcategory collie , which in turn is a hypernym with respect to Fido which is one of its hyponyms. Typically, however, hypernym is used to refer to subcategories rather than single individuals. Researchers reported that large populations consistently develop highly similar category systems. This may be relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures such as folksonomies and language or human communication, and sense-making in general. Hull (1998) suggested "The fundamental elements of any classification are its theoretical commitments, basic units and

2365-426: The rationalist theory of knowledge. "Empiricism alone is not enough: a healthy advance in taxonomy depends on a sound theoretical foundation" Phenetics or numerical taxonomy is by contrast bottom-up classification, where the starting point is a set of items or individuals, which are classified by putting those with shared characteristics as members of a narrow class and proceeding upward. Numerical taxonomy

2420-510: The sharing of data and code. CRediT comprises 14 specific contributor roles using the following defined terms: The taxonomy is an open standard conformiing to the OpenStand principles, and is published under a Creative Commons licence. Websites with a well designed taxonomy or hierarchy are easily understood by users, due to the possibility of users developing a mental model of the site structure. Guidelines for writing taxonomy for

2475-427: The so-called evolutionary taxonomy ", which mixes historical and empiricist principles). Logical division (top-down classification or downward classification) is an approach that divides a class into subclasses and then divide subclasses into their subclasses, and so on, which finally forms a tree of classes. The root of the tree is the original class, and the leaves of the tree are the final classes. Plato advocated

2530-597: The species of the torquatus group (Widow titis); Plecturocebus Byrne et al., 2016 for the Amazonian and Chaco titis of the moloch and donacophilus groups; and Callicebus Thomas, 1903 sensu stricto , for species of the Atlantic Forest personatus group. Cheracebus is derived from the Latin chera (from the Greek χηρα ) meaning widow and cebus (from the Greek κῆβος ) meaning long tailed monkey. There are 5 species in this genus: Scientific classification Originally, taxonomy referred only to

2585-413: The specific objects are considered as instances of a concept. For example, Fido is-an instance of the concept dog and Fluffy is-a cat . In linguistics , is-a relations are called hyponymy . When one word describes a category, but another describe some subset of that category, the larger term is called a hypernym with respect to the smaller, and the smaller is called a "hyponym" with respect to

2640-430: The specific to the more general. Anthropologists have observed that taxonomies are generally embedded in local cultural and social systems, and serve various social functions. Perhaps the most well-known and influential study of folk taxonomies is Émile Durkheim 's The Elementary Forms of Religious Life . A more recent treatment of folk taxonomies (including the results of several decades of empirical research) and

2695-448: The theory of evolution. Charles Darwin's main contribution to classification theory of not just his claim "... all true classification is genealogical ..." but that he provided operational guidance for classification. Genealogical classification is not restricted to biology, but is also much used in, for example, classification of languages, and may be considered a general approach to classification." These methods may overall be related to

2750-547: The titis consists mainly of fruits, although they also eat leaves, flowers, insects, bird eggs and small vertebrates. Titis are monogamous , mating for life. The female bears a single young after about a five-month gestation . Twins occur rarely, having been documented in only 1.4% of all births in captive groups of Plecturocebus moloch . While the second infant usually does not survive, cases where neighbouring groups have adopted infants are known, suggesting that twins may be reared successfully under certain circumstances. Often it

2805-443: The two main such principles, phenetic and phylogenetic classification ". Natural classification is a concept closely related to the concept natural kind . Carl Linnaeus is often recognized as the first scholar to clearly have differentiated "artificial" and "natural" classifications A natural classification is one, using Plato's metaphor, that is “carving nature at its joints” Although Linnaeus considered natural classification

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2860-422: The upperside. Some species have contrasting blackish or whitish foreheads, while all members of the genus Cheracebus have a white half-collar. The tail is always furry and is not prehensile . Diurnal and arboreal , titis predominantly prefer dense forests near water. They easily jump from branch to branch, earning them their German name, Springaffen (jumping monkeys). They sleep at night, but can also take

2915-508: The use of a taxonomy to bridge the communication between researchers and practitioners engaged in the area of software testing. They have also developed a web-based tool to facilitate and encourage the use of the taxonomy. The tool and its source code are available for public use. Uses of taxonomy in education include: Uses of taxonomy in safety include: Citing inadequacies with current practices in listing authors of papers in medical research journals, Drummond Rennie and co-authors called in

2970-405: The web include: Frederick Suppe distinguished two senses of classification: a broad meaning, which he called "conceptual classification" and a narrow meaning, which he called "systematic classification". About conceptual classification Suppe wrote: "Classification is intrinsic to the use of language, hence to most if not all communication. Whenever we use nominative phrases we are classifying

3025-498: Was formerly considered one species (with subspecies) are in reality many different species, which just have chosen similar characteristics to adopt to their ecological niches. An important argument for considering concepts the basis of classification is that concepts are subject to change and that they changes when scientific revolutions occur. Our concepts of many birds, for example, have changed with recent development in DNA analysis and

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