Misplaced Pages

#11988

51-462: The UNISERVO used metal tape: a 1 ⁄ 2 -inch-wide (13 mm) thin strip of nickel -plated phosphor bronze (called Vicalloy) 1200 feet long. These metal tapes and reels were very heavy with a combined weight of 25lbs. Data was recorded in eight channels on the tape (six for the data value, one parity channel for error checking, and one timing channel) at a density of 128 bits per inch. The tape could be moved at 100 inches per second, giving

102-491: A matte for further refining. Hydrometallurgical techniques are also used. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction. The nickel matte is further processed with the Sherritt-Gordon process . First, copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide , leaving a concentrate of cobalt and nickel. Then, solvent extraction

153-399: A synchronous motor . Supply and take-up reel motion was buffered via a complex pulley-string-spring arrangement, as the design was prior to the invention of the vacuum column buffer. The tape drive contained a permanent leader, and each tape reel had a connector link to the leader. The nickel-plated phosphor bronze tapes were very abrasive, and to counter this problem a thin plastic wear tape

204-399: A compound, nickel has a number of niche chemical manufacturing uses, such as a catalyst for hydrogenation , cathodes for rechargeable batteries, pigments and metal surface treatments. Nickel is an essential nutrient for some microorganisms and plants that have enzymes with nickel as an active site . Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It

255-448: A nominal transfer rate of 12,800 characters per second. Data were recorded in fixed size blocks of 60 words of 12 characters each. Making allowance for the empty space between tape blocks, the actual transfer rate was around 7,200 characters per second. The UNISERVO supported both forward and backward modes on read or write operation. This offered significant advantages in data sorting and merging applications. The data transfers to/from

306-713: A public controversy regarding the problems of people with nickel allergy . An estimated 3.6 million tonnes (t) of nickel per year are mined worldwide; Indonesia (1,800,000 t), the Philippines (400,000 t), Russia (200,000 t), New Caledonia ( France ) (230,000 t), Canada (180,000 t) and Australia (160,000 t) are the largest producers as of 2023. The largest nickel deposits in non-Russian Europe are in Finland and Greece . Identified land-based sources averaging at least 1% nickel contain at least 130 million tonnes of nickel. About 60%

357-504: Is Ni with 28 protons and 50 neutrons. Both are therefore unusually stable for nuclei with so large a proton–neutron imbalance . Nickel-63 is a contaminant found in the support structure of nuclear reactors. It is produced through neutron capture by nickel-62. Small amounts have also been found near nuclear weapon test sites in the South Pacific. Nickel ores are classified as oxides or sulfides. Oxides include laterite , where

408-411: Is $ 0.045 (90% of the face value). In the 21st century, the high price of nickel has led to some replacement of the metal in coins around the world. Coins still made with nickel alloys include one- and two- euro coins , 5¢, 10¢, 25¢, 50¢, and $ 1 U.S. coins , and 20p, 50p, £1, and £2 UK coins . From 2012 on the nickel-alloy used for 5p and 10p UK coins was replaced with nickel-plated steel. This ignited

459-427: Is a chemical element ; it has symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. Nickel is a hard and ductile transition metal . Pure nickel is chemically reactive, but large pieces are slow to react with air under standard conditions because a passivation layer of nickel oxide forms on the surface that prevents further corrosion. Even so, pure native nickel

510-417: Is a 3d 4s energy level, specifically the 3d ( F) 4s F, J  = 4 level. However, each of these two configurations splits into several energy levels due to fine structure , and the two sets of energy levels overlap. The average energy of states with [Ar] 3d 4s is actually lower than the average energy of states with [Ar] 3d 4s . Therefore, the research literature on atomic calculations quotes

561-725: Is a new nickel mine in Michigan's Upper Peninsula . Construction was completed in 2013, and operations began in the third quarter of 2014. In the first full year of operation, the Eagle Mine produced 18,000 t. Nickel is obtained through extractive metallurgy : it is extracted from ore by conventional roasting and reduction processes that yield metal of greater than 75% purity. In many stainless steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further purification, depending on impurities. Traditionally, most sulfide ores are processed using pyrometallurgical techniques to produce

SECTION 10

#1732782833012

612-501: Is a volatile, highly toxic liquid at room temperature. On heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide: This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for purifying nickel, as described above. The related nickel(0) complex bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a useful catalyst in organonickel chemistry because the cyclooctadiene (or cod ) ligands are easily displaced. Nickel(I) complexes are uncommon, but one example

663-703: Is currently being set in place by the International Seabed Authority to ensure that these nodules are collected in an environmentally conscientious manner while adhering to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals . The one place in the United States where nickel has been profitably mined is Riddle, Oregon , with several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits. The mine closed in 1987. The Eagle mine project

714-601: Is found in Earth's crust only in tiny amounts, usually in ultramafic rocks , and in the interiors of larger nickel–iron meteorites that were not exposed to oxygen when outside Earth's atmosphere. Meteoric nickel is found in combination with iron , a reflection of the origin of those elements as major end products of supernova nucleosynthesis . An iron–nickel mixture is thought to compose Earth's outer and inner cores . Use of nickel (as natural meteoric nickel–iron alloy) has been traced as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel

765-470: Is greater than both Fe and Fe , more abundant nuclides often incorrectly cited as having the highest binding energy. Though this would seem to predict nickel as the most abundant heavy element in the universe, the high rate of photodisintegration of nickel in stellar interiors causes iron to be by far the most abundant. Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide Fe (half-life 2.6 million years). Due to

816-575: Is in laterites and 40% is in sulfide deposits. Also, extensive nickel sources are found in the depths of the Pacific Ocean , especially in an area called the Clarion Clipperton Zone in the form of polymetallic nodules peppering the seafloor at 3.5–6 km below sea level . These nodules are composed of numerous rare-earth metals and are estimated to be 1.7% nickel. With advances in science and engineering , regulation

867-455: Is now Syria have been found to contain as much as 2% nickel. Some ancient Chinese manuscripts suggest that "white copper" ( cupronickel , known as baitong ) was used there in 1700–1400 BCE. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822. Coins of nickel-copper alloy were minted by Bactrian kings Agathocles , Euthydemus II , and Pantaleon in

918-434: Is now known as the mineral nickeline (formerly niccolite ), a nickel arsenide . In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt tried to extract copper from kupfernickel at a cobalt mine in the village of Los, Sweden , and instead produced a white metal that he named nickel after the spirit that had given its name to the mineral. In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel . Originally,

969-412: Is one of only four elements that are ferromagnetic at or near room temperature; the others are iron, cobalt and gadolinium . Its Curie temperature is 355 °C (671 °F), meaning that bulk nickel is non-magnetic above this temperature. The unit cell of nickel is a face-centered cube ; it has lattice parameter of 0.352 nm, giving an atomic radius of 0.124 nm. This crystal structure

1020-469: Is produced by the silicon burning process and later set free in large amounts in type Ia supernovae . The shape of the light curve of these supernovae at intermediate to late-times corresponds to the decay via electron capture of Ni to cobalt -56 and ultimately to iron-56. Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide ; half-life 76,000 years. Ni has found many applications in isotope geology . Ni has been used to date

1071-572: Is stable to pressures of at least 70 GPa. Nickel is hard, malleable and ductile , and has a relatively high electrical and thermal conductivity for transition metals. The high compressive strength of 34 GPa, predicted for ideal crystals, is never obtained in the real bulk material due to formation and movement of dislocations . However, it has been reached in Ni nanoparticles . Nickel has two atomic electron configurations , [Ar] 3d 4s and [Ar] 3d 4s , which are very close in energy; [Ar] denotes

SECTION 20

#1732782833012

1122-446: Is the tetrahedral complex NiBr(PPh 3 ) 3 . Many nickel(I) complexes have Ni–Ni bonding, such as the dark red diamagnetic K 4 [Ni 2 (CN) 6 ] prepared by reduction of K 2 [Ni 2 (CN) 6 ] with sodium amalgam . This compound is oxidized in water, liberating H 2 . It is thought that the nickel(I) oxidation state is important to nickel-containing enzymes, such as [NiFe]-hydrogenase , which catalyzes

1173-479: Is used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries , including nickel–cadmium , nickel–iron , nickel–hydrogen , and nickel–metal hydride , and used by certain manufacturers in Li-ion batteries . Ni(IV) remains a rare oxidation state and very few compounds are known. Ni(IV) occurs in the mixed oxide BaNiO 3 . Unintentional use of nickel can be traced back as far as 3500 BCE. Bronzes from what

1224-455: Is used chiefly in alloys and corrosion-resistant plating. About 68% of world production is used in stainless steel . A further 10% is used for nickel-based and copper-based alloys, 9% for plating, 7% for alloy steels, 3% in foundries, and 4% in other applications such as in rechargeable batteries, including those in electric vehicles (EVs). Nickel is widely used in coins , though nickel-plated objects sometimes provoke nickel allergy . As

1275-412: Is used to separate the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel content greater than 86%. A second common refining process is leaching the metal matte into a nickel salt solution, followed by electrowinning the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode as electrolytic nickel. The purest metal is obtained from nickel oxide by the Mond process , which gives a purity of over 99.99%. The process

1326-467: The arsenide niccolite . Identified land-based resources throughout the world averaging 1% nickel or greater comprise at least 130 million tons of nickel (about the double of known reserves). About 60% is in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits. On geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is believed to be in Earth's outer and inner cores . Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite,

1377-484: The metal aquo complex [Ni(H 2 O) 6 ] . The four halides form nickel compounds, which are solids with molecules with octahedral Ni centres. Nickel(II) chloride is most common, and its behavior is illustrative of the other halides. Nickel(II) chloride is made by dissolving nickel or its oxide in hydrochloric acid . It is usually found as the green hexahydrate, whose formula is usually written NiCl 2 ·6H 2 O . When dissolved in water, this salt forms

1428-479: The metal aquo complex [Ni(H 2 O) 6 ] . Dehydration of NiCl 2 ·6H 2 O gives yellow anhydrous NiCl 2 . Some tetracoordinate nickel(II) complexes, e.g. bis(triphenylphosphine)nickel chloride , exist both in tetrahedral and square planar geometries. The tetrahedral complexes are paramagnetic ; the square planar complexes are diamagnetic . In having properties of magnetic equilibrium and formation of octahedral complexes, they contrast with

1479-543: The 2nd century BCE, possibly out of the Chinese cupronickel. In medieval Germany, a metallic yellow mineral was found in the Ore Mountains that resembled copper ore. But when miners were unable to get any copper from it, they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick ), for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from German Kupfer 'copper'. This ore

1530-584: The UNIVAC I as well as use higher-density PET film base/ferric oxide media tapes that became the industry standard. While UNIVAC was first with computer tape, and had higher performance than contemporary IBM tape drives, IBM was able to set the data interchange standard. UNIVAC was later forced to be compatible with the IBM technology. The tape motion in the UNISERVO I was controlled by a single capstan connected to

1581-482: The UNIVAC I processor were fully buffered in a single block dedicated memory, permitting instruction execution in parallel with tape movement and data transfer. The internal serial data path permitted inserting a tape data block into main memory in one instruction. UNIVAC continued to use the name UNISERVO for later models of tape drive (e.g., UNISERVO II, UNISERVO IIIC, UNISERVO VIII-C) for later computers in their product line. The UNISERVO II could read metal tapes from

UNISERVO I - Misplaced Pages Continue

1632-504: The United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" originally applied to the copper-nickel Flying Eagle cent , which replaced copper with 12% nickel 1857–58, then the Indian Head cent of the same alloy from 1859 to 1864. Still later, in 1865, the term designated the three-cent nickel , with nickel increased to 25%. In 1866, the five-cent shield nickel (25% nickel, 75% copper) appropriated the designation, which has been used ever since for

1683-501: The alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5, though impurities (such as cobalt or carbon ) may be present. Taenite is 20% to 65% nickel. Kamacite and taenite are also found in nickel iron meteorites . Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite . Nickel in meteorites was first detected in 1799 by Joseph-Louis Proust , a French chemist who then worked in Spain. Proust analyzed samples of

1734-469: The complete argon core structure. There is some disagreement on which configuration has the lower energy. Chemistry textbooks quote nickel's electron configuration as [Ar] 4s 3d , also written [Ar] 3d 4s . This configuration agrees with the Madelung energy ordering rule , which predicts that 4s is filled before 3d. It is supported by the experimental fact that the lowest energy state of the nickel atom

1785-484: The divalent complexes of the heavier group 10 metals, palladium(II) and platinum(II), which form only square-planar geometry. Nickelocene has an electron count of 20. Many chemical reactions of nickelocene tend to yield 18-electron products. Many Ni(III) compounds are known. Ni(III) forms simple salts with fluoride or oxide ions. Ni(III) can be stabilized by σ-donor ligands such as thiols and organophosphines . Ni(III) occurs in nickel oxide hydroxide , which

1836-701: The earth's crust exists as oxides, economically more important nickel ores are sulfides, especially pentlandite . Major production sites include the Sudbury region , Canada (which is thought to be of meteoric origin), New Caledonia in the Pacific , Western Australia , and Norilsk , Russia. Nickel is one of four elements (the others are iron , cobalt , and gadolinium ) that are ferromagnetic at about room temperature. Alnico permanent magnets based partly on nickel are of intermediate strength between iron-based permanent magnets and rare-earth magnets . The metal

1887-479: The ground state configuration as [Ar] 3d 4s . The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48  u ( Ni ) to 82 u ( Ni ). Natural nickel is composed of five stable isotopes , Ni , Ni , Ni , Ni and Ni , of which Ni is the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance ). Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any nuclide : 8.7946 MeV/nucleon. Its binding energy

1938-750: The large deposits in the Sudbury Basin in Canada in 1883, in Norilsk -Talnakh in Russia in 1920, and in the Merensky Reef in South Africa in 1924 made large-scale nickel production possible. Aside from the aforementioned Bactrian coins, nickel was not a component of coins until the mid-19th century. 99.9% nickel five-cent coins were struck in Canada (the world's largest nickel producer at

1989-784: The long half-life of Fe , its persistence in materials in the Solar System may generate observable variations in the isotopic composition of Ni . Therefore, the abundance of Ni in extraterrestrial material may give insight into the origin of the Solar System and its early history. At least 26 nickel radioisotopes have been characterized; the most stable are Ni with half-life 76,000 years, Ni (100 years), and Ni (6 days). All other radioisotopes have half-lives less than 60 hours and most these have half-lives less than 30 seconds. This element also has one meta state . Radioactive nickel-56

2040-416: The metals at a profit. The United States Mint , anticipating this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalized the melting and export of cents and nickels. Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $ 10,000 and/or a maximum of five years in prison. As of September 19, 2013, the melt value of a US nickel (copper and nickel included)

2091-446: The meteorite from Campo del Cielo (Argentina), which had been obtained in 1783 by Miguel Rubín de Celis, discovering the presence in them of nickel (about 10%) along with iron. The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2, but compounds of Ni , Ni , and Ni are well known, and the exotic oxidation states Ni and Ni have been characterized. Nickel tetracarbonyl (Ni(CO) 4 ), discovered by Ludwig Mond ,

UNISERVO I - Misplaced Pages Continue

2142-509: The only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel. Beginning in 1824, nickel was obtained as a byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large-scale smelting of nickel began in Norway in 1848 from nickel-rich pyrrhotite . The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel; the nickel deposits of New Caledonia , discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of

2193-555: The plastic wear tape and felt wipers, since they were primarily used with PET film -base magnetic tape. Both continued the use of single capstan drives and were vacuum column designs. The IIIC and later tapes used NRZI encoding to be compatible with the IBM 729 series tape drives which set the industry standard for data interchange. Ironically, IBM then later switched to phase encoding in its 1600-bit-per-inch tape generation because of its superior data reliability. Nickel Nickel

2244-407: The principal mineral mixtures are nickeliferous limonite , (Fe,Ni)O(OH), and garnierite (a mixture of various hydrous nickel and nickel-rich silicates). Nickel sulfides commonly exist as solid solutions with iron in minerals such as pentlandite and pyrrhotite with the formula Fe 9-x Ni x S 8 and Fe 7-x Ni x S 6 , respectively. Other common Ni-containing minerals are millerite and

2295-477: The reversible reduction of protons to H 2 . Nickel(II) forms compounds with all common anions, including sulfide , sulfate , carbonate, hydroxide, carboxylates, and halides. Nickel(II) sulfate is produced in large amounts by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid , forming both a hexa- and heptahydrate useful for electroplating nickel. Common salts of nickel, such as chloride, nitrate, and sulfate, dissolve in water to give green solutions of

2346-468: The subsequent 5-cent pieces. This alloy proportion is not ferromagnetic . The US nickel coin contains 0.04 ounces (1.1 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, with a total metal value of more than 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this made it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell

2397-399: The terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment . Nickel-78, with a half-life of 110 milliseconds, is believed an important isotope in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron. Ni, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known. With 28 protons and 20 neutrons , Ni is " doubly magic ", as

2448-563: The time) during non-war years from 1922 to 1981; the metal content made these coins magnetic. During the war years 1942–1945, most or all nickel was removed from Canadian and US coins to save it for making armor. Canada used 99.9% nickel from 1968 in its higher-value coins until 2000. Coins of nearly pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland. Birmingham forged nickel coins in c.  1833 for trading in Malaysia. In

2499-462: Was first isolated and classified as an element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt , who initially mistook the ore for a copper mineral , in the cobalt mines of Los, Hälsingland, Sweden . The element's name comes from a mischievous sprite of German miner mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick ). Nickel minerals can be green, like copper ores, and were known as kupfernickel – Nickel's copper – because they produced no copper. Although most nickel in

2550-429: Was patented by Ludwig Mond and has been in industrial use since before the beginning of the 20th century. In this process, nickel is treated with carbon monoxide in the presence of a sulfur catalyst at around 40–80 °C to form nickel carbonyl . In a similar reaction with iron, iron pentacarbonyl can form, though this reaction is slow. If necessary, the nickel may be separated by distillation. Dicobalt octacarbonyl

2601-419: Was slowly moved over the recording head, between the head and the tape, preventing the recording head from quickly wearing out. The metal tapes also were dirty, and a slowly renewed felt wiper collected tape debris. The UNISERVO I had a high-speed rewind capability, and multiple drives on the UNIVAC I could rewind while others continued with data processing reads or writes. The later UNISERVO IIA and IIIA omitted

SECTION 50

#1732782833012
#11988