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58-622: On January 8, 1890, Thomas Corwin Mendenhall , superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Office, wrote to 10 noted geographers "to suggest the organization of a Board made up of representatives from the different Government services interested, to which may be referred any disputed question of geographical orthography." President Benjamin Harrison signed executive order 28 on September 4, 1890, establishing

116-589: A Kater's pendulum of the force of gravity at sea level and at the summit of Mount Fuji , Mendenhall deduced a value for the mass of the Earth that agreed closely with estimates that Francis Baily had made in England by another method. He also made a series of elaborate measurements of the wavelengths of the solar spectrum by means of a large spectrometer . He also became interested in earthquakes while in Japan, and

174-515: A book or referenced in a reading list), YouTube , Udemy , Udacity and Khan Academy in particular, have developed as learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together. Organizations like The Alliance for Self-Directed Education (ASDE) have been formed to publicize and provide guidance for self-directed education. Entrepreneurs like Henry Ford, Steve Jobs, and Bill Gates are considered influential self-teachers. The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to

232-561: A learning space , where one uses critical thinking to develop study skills within the broader learning environment until they've reached an academic comfort zone . The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words αὐτός ( autós , lit.   ' self ' ) and διδακτικός ( didaktikos , lit.   ' teaching ' ). The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education . Various terms are used to describe self-education. One such

290-539: A political state starts to implement restrictions on the profession, there are issues related to the rights of established self-taught architects. In most countries the legislation includes a grandfather clause , authorising established self-taught architects to continue practicing. In the UK, the legislation allowed self-trained architects with two years of experience to register. In France, it allowed self-trained architects with five years of experience to register. In Belgium,

348-556: A 1947 law, Public Law 80-242. The 1969 BGN publication Decisions on Geographic Names in the United States stated the agency's chief purpose as: [Names are] submitted for decisions to the Board on Geographical names by individuals, private organizations, or government agencies. It is the Board's responsibility to render formal decisions on new names, proposed changes in names, and names which are in conflict. [The decisions] define

406-577: A clause, and many established and competent practitioners were stripped of their professional rights. In the Republic of Ireland, a group named " Architects' Alliance of Ireland " is defending the interests of long-established self-trained architects who were deprived of their rights to practice as per Part 3 of the Irish Building Control Act 2007. Theoretical research such as Architecture of Change, Sustainability and Humanity in

464-406: A given area. Furthermore, massive open online courses (MOOCs) make autodidacticism easier and thus more common. A 2016 Stack Overflow poll reported that due to the rise of autodidacticism, 69.1% of software developers appear to be self-taught. Some notable autodidacts can be broadly grouped in the following interdisciplinary areas: Most governments have compulsory education that may deny

522-491: A given skill or about a given topic, supporting one another by pooling resources, materials, and knowledge. Secular and modern societies have given foundations for new systems of education and new kinds of autodidacts. As Internet access has become more widespread the World Wide Web (explored using search engines such as Google ) in general, and websites such as Misplaced Pages (including parts of it that were included in

580-582: A mystical mediation and communion with God. The hero rises from his initial state of tabula rasa to a mystical or direct experience of God after passing through the necessary natural experiences. The focal point of the story is that human reason, unaided by society and its conventions or by religion, can achieve scientific knowledge, preparing the way to the mystical or highest form of human knowledge. Commonly translated as "The Self-Taught Philosopher" or "The Improvement of Human Reason", Ibn-Tufayl's story Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan inspired debates about autodidacticism in

638-594: A number of schools in Ohio including Central High School in Columbus, gaining an impressive reputation as a teacher and educator. In 1873, although he lacked conventional academic credentials, he was appointed professor of physics and mechanics at the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College. The college ultimately became Ohio State University , Mendenhall being the first member of the original faculty. He

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696-432: A process outside conscious control. To interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods. Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value

754-622: A range of historical fields from classical Islamic philosophy through Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment. In his book Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism, Avner Ben-Zaken showed how the text traveled from late medieval Andalusia to early modern Europe and demonstrated the intricate ways in which autodidacticism was contested in and adapted to diverse cultural settings. Autodidacticism apparently intertwined with struggles over Sufism in twelfth-century Marrakesh; controversies about

812-423: A self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the "teacher" or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format. This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in

870-546: A suggestion made by the English mathematician Augustus De Morgan in 1851, Mendenhall attempted to characterize the style of different authors through the frequency distribution of words of various lengths. In this article Mendenhall mentioned the possible relevance of this technique to the Shakespeare authorship question , and several years later the idea was picked up by a supporter of the theory that Sir Francis Bacon

928-476: A system where working is also learning, where self-education is associated with creativity and productivity within a working environment. While he was primarily interested in naval architecture , William Francis Gibbs learned his profession through his own study of battleships and ocean liners . Through his life he could be seen examining and changing the designs of ships that were already built, that is, until he started his firm Gibbs and Cox . Openness

986-468: Is heutagogy , coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia; others are self-directed learning and self-determined learning . In the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of their own learning. A truly self-determined learning approach also sees the heutagogic learner exploring different approaches to knowledge in order to learn; there

1044-477: Is an element of experimentation underpinned by a personal curiosity. Andragogy "strive[s] for autonomy and self-direction in learning", while Heutagogy "identif[ies] the potential to learn from novel experiences as a matter of course [...] manage their own learning". Ubuntugogy is a type of cosmopolitanism that has a collectivist ethics of awareness concerning the African diaspora . Autodidacticism

1102-698: Is currently part of the Smithsonian Institution National Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C. It was painted by his former pupil Annie Ware Sabine Siebert , who was the first recipient of a Master of Arts degree from The Ohio State University in 1886, and one of the first women to earn an architecture degree from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1888. [2] A portrait by famous artist and Columbus, Ohio native George Bellows

1160-453: Is sometimes a complement of modern formal education. As a complement to formal education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work. The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners. Before the twentieth century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in

1218-399: Is the practice of education without the guidance of schoolmasters (i.e., teachers , professors , institutions ). Autodidacts are self-taught humans who learn a subject -of-study's aboutness through self-study. This educative praxis (process) may involve or complement formal education . Formal education itself may have a hidden curriculum that requires self-study for

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1276-661: Is the largest predictor of self-directed learning out of the Big Five personality traits , though, in a study, personality only explained 10% of the variance in self-directed learning. The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration. As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K–12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have

1334-559: Is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making. In his book Deschooling Society , philosopher Ivan Illich strongly criticized 20th-century educational culture and the institutionalization of knowledge and learning - arguing that institutional schooling as such is an irretrievably flawed model of education - advocating instead ad-hoc co-operative networks through which autodidacts could find others interested in teaching themselves

1392-464: The Board on Geographical Names . "To this Board shall be referred all unsettled questions concerning geographic names. The decisions of the Board are to be accepted [by federal departments] as the standard authority for such matters." The board was given authority to resolve all unsettled questions concerning geographic names. Decisions of the board were accepted as binding by all departments and agencies of

1450-603: The Library of Congress , and the US Postal Service . The BGN rules on hundreds of naming decisions annually and stores over two million geographical records in its databases at geonames.usgs.gov. State and local governments and private mapping organizations usually follow the BGN's decisions. The BGN has an executive committee and two permanent committees with full authority: the 10- to 15-member Domestic Names Committee and

1508-498: The United States . However, even in the U.S., most children were not completing high school . High school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a larger percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine, or a divinity degree. Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until

1566-479: The United States Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1889. During his time as superintendent, he issued the Mendenhall Order and oversaw the consequent transition of the United States's weights and measures from the customary system, based on that of England , to the metric system . Mendenhall remained a strong proponent for the official adoption of the metric system all his life. Also, as superintendent of

1624-663: The federal government . The board has since undergone several name changes. In 1934, it was transferred to the Department of the Interior . The Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names was established in 1943 as the Special Committee on Antarctic Names (SCAN). In 1963, the Advisory Committee on Undersea Features was started for standardization of names of undersea features. Its present form derives from

1682-567: The speed of light , for which he won a Nobel Prize in 1907. An early model of the original 1890s Mendenhall Gravimeter is on display at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Mendenhall was appointed president of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute from 1894 until 1901, when he emigrated to Europe. He returned to the United States in 1912. He was appointed to the board of trustees of

1740-471: The 8- to 10-member Foreign Names Committee. Both comprise government employees only. Each maintains its own database. The BGN does not create place names but responds to proposals for names from federal agencies; state, local, and tribal governments; and the public. Any person or organization, public or private, may make inquiries or request the board to render formal decisions on proposed new names, proposed name changes, or names that are in conflict. Generally,

1798-523: The BGN defers federal name use to comply with local usage. There are a few exceptions. For example, in rare cases where a locally used name is very offensive, the BGN may decide against adoption of the local name for federal use. The BGN does not translate terms, but instead accurately uses foreign names in the Roman alphabet. For non-Roman languages, the BGN uses transliteration systems or creates them for less well-known languages. The BGN does not recognize

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1856-665: The BGN in cooperation with the US Geological Survey , includes topographic map names and bibliographic references. The names of books and historic maps which confirm the feature or place name are cited. Variant names, alternatives to official federal names for a feature, are also recorded. The BGN has members from six federal departments as well as the Central Intelligence Agency , the US Government Publishing Office ,

1914-473: The Built Environment or older studies such as Vers une Architecture from Le Corbusier describe the practice of architecture as an environment changing with new technologies, sciences, and legislation. All architects must be autodidacts to keep up to date with new standards , regulations , or methods . Self-taught architects such as Eileen Gray , Luis Barragán , and many others, created

1972-637: The Ohio State University in 1919 and is remembered for his successful efforts to close the College of Homeopathic Medicine and his unsuccessful effort to limit the capacity of Ohio Stadium to 45,000 seats, contending that it would never be able to fill to its design capacity of 63,000 seats. He continued to serve as a trustee until his death at Ravenna, Ohio in 1924. He was buried at Forest Hill Cemetery in Madison, Wisconsin. His portrait

2030-474: The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, he was also responsible for defining the exact national boundary between Alaska and Canada. The Mendenhall Valley and Glacier in Juneau, Alaska was named for him in 1892. Mendenhall invented the portable Mendenhall Gravimeter in 1890 while he was superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and at that time it provided the most accurate relative measurements of

2088-559: The United States and is the father of author profiling . Mendenhall was born in Hanoverton, Ohio , to Stephen Mendenhall, a farmer and carriage-maker, and Mary Thomas. In 1852 the family moved to Marlboro , a Quaker community outside of Akron, Ohio . His parents were strong abolitionists and frequently opened their home to escaped slaves heading north along the Underground Railroad . Mendenhall became principal of

2146-609: The United States and Canada. He became professor at the U.S. Signal Corps in 1884, introducing of systematic observations of lightning , and investigating methods for determining ground temperatures. He was the first to establish stations in the United States for the systematic observation of earthquake phenomena. Resigning in 1886, Mendenhall took up the presidency of the Rose Polytechnic Institute in Terre Haute, Indiana before becoming superintendent of

2204-406: The United States began to increase sharply in the early twentieth century. This phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor . The automated glass bottle-making machine is said to have done more for education than child labor laws because boys were no longer needed to assist. However, the number of boys employed in this particular industry was not that large; it

2262-466: The area. As a form of discovery learning , students in today's classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to "experience and interact" with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism. Successful self-teaching can require self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that the ability to regulate one's own learning may need to be modeled to some students so that they become active learners, while others learn dynamically via

2320-684: The early nineteenth century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, typically for a fee. Prior to the nineteenth century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who, typically, had received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt

2378-468: The law allowed experienced self-trained architects in practice to register. In Italy, it allowed self-trained architects with 10 years of experience to register. In The Netherlands, the " wet op de architectentitel van 7 juli 1987 " along with additional procedures, allowed architects with 10 years of experience and architects aged 40 years old or over, with 5 years of experience, to access the register. However, other sovereign states chose to omit such

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2436-549: The local gravitational field of the Earth. The gravimeters were used at over 340 survey stations across the US and around the world including Germany, the Netherlands , Java , Philippines , Cuba , Haiti , Bahamas , Dominican Republic , Panama , Canada, and Mexico. The swing of the pendulum was more regular than the most accurate clocks of the era, and as the "world's best clock" it was used by Albert A. Michelson to measure

2494-468: The local primary school in 1858. He formalized his teaching qualifications at National Normal University in 1861 with an Instructor Normalis degree. While living in Columbus, Ohio , he married Susan Allan Marple in 1870. The couple had one child, Charles Elwood Mendenhall (1872–1935), teacher and chairman of the physics department at University of Wisconsin–Madison for 34 years. He taught at

2552-691: The past, the BGN issued its decisions in various publications under different titles at different intervals with various information included. In 1933, the BGN published a significant consolidated report of all decisions from 1890 to 1932 in its Sixth Report of the United States Geographic Board 1890–1932 . For many years, the BGN published a quarterly report under the title Decisions on Geographic Names . Thomas Corwin Mendenhall Thomas Corwin Mendenhall (October 4, 1841 – March 23, 1924)

2610-587: The role of philosophy in pedagogy in fourteenth-century Barcelona ; quarrels concerning astrology in Renaissance Florence in which Pico della Mirandola pleads for autodidacticism against the strong authority of intellectual establishment notions of predestination; and debates pertaining to experimentalism in seventeenth-century Oxford. Pleas for autodidacticism echoed not only within close philosophical discussions; they surfaced in struggles for control between individuals and establishments. In

2668-481: The spellings and applications of the names for use on maps and other publications of Federal agencies The board has developed principles, policies, and procedures governing the use of domestic and foreign geographic names, including underseas. The BGN also deals with names of geographical features in Antarctica via its Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names . The Geographic Names Information System , developed by

2726-665: The story of Black American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine Black American's relationship to literacy during slavery , the Civil War and the first decades of freedom. Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education. Many successful and influential architects , such as Mies van der Rohe , Frank Lloyd Wright , Violet-Le-Duc , Tadao Ando were self-taught. There are very few countries allowing autodidacticism in architecture today. The practice of architecture or

2784-730: The study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Alive son of the Vigilant), whose titular hero is considered the archetypal autodidact. The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Tufail in the 1160s in Marrakesh . It is a story about a feral boy, an autodidact prodigy who masters nature through instruments and reason, discovers laws of nature by practical exploration and experiments, and gains summum bonum through

2842-818: The uninitiated. Generally, autodidacts are individuals who choose the subject they will study, their studying material, and the studying rhythm and time. Autodidacts may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to formal education. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts. The self-learning curriculum is infinite. One may seek out alternative pathways in education and use these to gain competency ; self-study may meet some prerequisite-curricula criteria for experiential education or apprenticeship . Self-education techniques used in self-study can include reading educational textbooks , watching educational videos and listening to educational audio recordings , or by visiting infoshops . One uses some space as

2900-658: The use of the possessive apostrophe and has only granted an exception five times during its history, including one for Martha's Vineyard , Massachusetts. In federal mapping and names collection efforts, there is often a phase lag where a delay occurs in adoption of a locally used name. Sometimes the delay is several decades. Volunteers in the Earth Science Corps are used to assist the US Geological Survey in collecting names of geographic features. The BGN currently publishes names on its website. In

2958-400: The use of the title "architect", are now protected in most countries . Self-taught architects have generally studied and qualified in other fields such as engineering or arts and crafts . Jean Prouvé was first a structural engineer. Le Corbusier had an academic qualification in decorative arts. Tadao Ando started his career as a draftsman, and Eileen Gray studied fine arts . When

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3016-574: Was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being "largely self-educated". Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society . In the eighteenth century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training. Years of schooling in

3074-465: Was an American autodidact physicist and meteorologist . He was the first professor hired at Ohio State University in 1873 and the superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (one of the ancestor organizations of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ) from 1889 to 1894. Alongside his work, he was also an advocate for the adoption of the metric system by

3132-407: Was commissioned by the Ohio State University in 1913. The largest collection of images, historical documents and handwritten material relating to Thomas Corwin Mendenhall is with Mendenhall family member documentary filmmaker Sybil Drew. In 1887 Mendenhall published one of the earliest attempts at stylometry also known as author profiling, the quantitative analysis of writing style. Prompted by

3190-505: Was later awarded the first ever honorary Ph.D. from The Ohio State University in 1878. In 1878, on the recommendation of Edward S. Morse , he was recruited to help the modernization of Meiji Era Japan as one of the o-yatoi gaikokujin (hired foreigners), serving as visiting professor of physics at Tokyo Imperial University . In connection with this appointment, he founded a meteorological observatory to make systematic observations during his residence in Japan. From measurements using

3248-541: Was mechanization in several sectors of industry that displaced child labor toward education. For males in the U.S. born 1886–90, years of school averaged 7.86, while for those born in 1926–30, years of school averaged 11.46. One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students' individual needs, goals, and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding

3306-585: Was one of the founders of the Seismological Society of Japan (SSJ). During his time in Japan, he also gave public lectures on various scientific topics to general audiences in temples and in theaters. Returning to Ohio in 1881, Mendenhall was instrumental in developing the Ohio State Meteorological Service. He devised a system of weather signals for display on railroad trains. This method became general throughout

3364-707: Was the true author of the works usually attributed to Shakespeare. He paid for a team of two people to undertake the counting required, but the results did not appear to support the theory. For comparison, in 1901 Mendenhall also had works by Christopher Marlowe analysed, and proponents of the Marlovian theory of Shakespeare authorship welcomed his finding that "in the characteristic curve of his plays Christopher Marlowe agrees with Shakespeare about as well as Shakespeare agrees with himself." Autodidact Autodidacticism (also autodidactism ) or self-education (also self-learning , self-study and self-teaching )

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