The U.S. Government Accounting Office Building is an historic government office building, the headquarters of the Government Accountability Office located at 441 G Street NW in Washington, D.C. , adjacent to the National Building Museum .
66-475: Unique in its "block style" design, federal office buildings before central air conditioning were designed with interior courtyards and wings, to allow for maximum ventilation and light. While the initial 1941 design utilized a "fish bone" style, with a central spine and interior courtyards, WWII placed the project on hold while technology advanced. In 1946, an updated, novel "solid building" design made headlines. Untested, planning officials wondered whether such
132-420: A crankcase , crankshaft , piston rod , piston , piston ring , cylinder head and valves. This compressor uses two interleaving scrolls to compress the refrigerant. it consists of one fixed and one orbiting scrolls. This type of compressor is more efficient because it has 70 percent less moving parts than a reciprocating compressor. This compressor use two very closely meshing spiral rotors to compress
198-501: A "wired thermostat," is a device that controls an air conditioner by switching heating or cooling on or off. It uses different sensors to measure temperatures and actuate control operations. Mechanical thermostats commonly use bimetallic strips , converting a temperature change into mechanical displacement, to actuate control of the air conditioner. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a thermistor or other semiconductor sensor, processing temperature change as electronic signals to control
264-534: A 1939 architecture graduate from the University of Texas at Austin , developed the first experimental "suburb" with inbuilt air conditioning in each house. 22 homes were developed on a flat, treeless track in northwest Austin, Texas , and the community was christened the 'Austin Air-Conditioned Village.' The residents were subjected to a year-long study of the effects of air conditioning led by
330-570: A 24-hour period. The value is equal to 12,000 BTU IT per hour, or 3,517 watts . Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity. The efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the seasonal energy efficiency ratio (SEER), which is defined by the Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment . A similar standard
396-405: A cooling tower on its condenser side. An air source heat pump shares many components with an air conditioning system, but includes a reversing valve , which allows the unit to be used to heat as well as cool a space. Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if the surface of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the dew point of
462-422: A defrosting cycle to be performed. The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are sometimes installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as an electrical heater, a natural gas , heating oil , or wood-burning fireplace or central heating , which is used instead of or in addition to the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case,
528-654: A family of systems and techniques that provide heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) . Heat pumps are similar in many ways to air conditioners, but use a reversing valve to allow them both to heat and to cool an enclosed space. Air conditioners, which typically use vapor-compression refrigeration , range in size from small units used in vehicles or single rooms to massive units that can cool large buildings. Air source heat pumps , which can be used for heating as well as cooling , are becoming increasingly common in cooler climates. Air conditioners can reduce mortality rates due to higher temperature. According to
594-778: A gap between the two walls to encourage air flow, were found in the ancient city of Hamoukar , in modern Syria . Ancient Egyptian buildings also used a wide variety of passive air-conditioning techniques. These became widespread from the Iberian Peninsula through North Africa, the Middle East, and Northern India. Passive techniques remained widespread until the 20th century when they fell out of fashion and were replaced by powered air conditioning. Using information from engineering studies of traditional buildings, passive techniques are being revived and modified for 21st-century architectural designs. Air conditioners allow
660-442: A general reader existed as far back as Greek and Roman antiquity. Without these popular works, much of the scientific knowledge of the era might have been lost. For example, none of the original works of the 4th century BC Greek astronomer Eudoxus have survived, but his contributions were largely preserved due to the didactic poem " Phenomena " written a century later and commented on by Hipparchus . Explaining science in poetic form
726-456: A patent in 1851, but following the death of his main backer, he was not able to realize his invention. In 1851, James Harrison created the first mechanical ice-making machine in Geelong, Australia , and was granted a patent for an ether vapor-compression refrigeration system in 1855 that produced three tons of ice per day. In 1860, Harrison established a second ice company. He later entered
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#1732782712022792-425: A quantity of gas from discharge to the suction side. The compressor will keep operating at the same speed, but due to the bypass, the refrigerant mass flow circulating with the system is reduced, and thus the cooling capacity. This naturally causes the compressor to run uselessly during the periods when the bypass is operating. The turn down capacity varies between 0 and 100%. Several compressors can be installed in
858-405: A remote control to the air conditioner. The output of the infrared LED (like that of any infrared remote) is invisible to the human eye because its wavelength is beyond the range of visible light (940 nm). This system is commonly used on mini-split air conditioners because it is simple and portable. Some window and ducted central air conditioners uses it as well. A wired controller, also called
924-460: A single or a few rooms of a building, without ducts and in a decentralized manner. Multi-zone or multi-split systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to eight rooms (zones or locations) to be conditioned independently from each other, each with its indoor unit and simultaneously from a single outdoor unit. The first mini-split system was sold in 1961 by Toshiba in Japan, and
990-438: A split central system, and deliver air, possibly through ducts, to the spaces to be cooled. Depending on their construction they may be outdoors or indoors, on roofs ( rooftop units ), draw the air to be conditioned from inside or outside a building and be water or air-cooled. Often, outdoor units are air-cooled while indoor units are liquid-cooled using a cooling tower. medium (large capacity) This compressor consists of
1056-495: A structure would prove claustrophobic for employees. It was dedicated on September 11, 1951, by President Harry S. Truman . The building also serves as headquarters for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . This article about a building or structure in Washington, D.C. is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Air conditioning Air conditioning , often abbreviated as A/C (US) or air con (UK),
1122-541: A thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about 6 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 in) thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching −14 °C (7 °F). Franklin concluded: "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day." The 19th century included many developments in compression technology. In 1820, English scientist and inventor Michael Faraday discovered that compressing and liquefying ammonia could chill air when
1188-424: A window frame or on a wall opening. The unit usually has an internal partition separating its indoor and outdoor sides, which contain the unit's condenser and evaporator, respectively. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, gas , or other heaters, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting
1254-407: Is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions. Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of " tons of refrigeration ", with each approximately equal to the cooling power of one short ton (2,000 pounds (910 kg) of ice melting in
1320-423: Is more broad ranging. It may be written by professional science journalists or by scientists themselves. It is presented in many forms, including books, film and television documentaries, magazine articles, and web pages. Before the modern specialization and professionalization of science, there was often little distinction between "science" and "popular science", and works intended to share scientific knowledge with
1386-423: Is often to capture the methods and accuracy of science while making the language more accessible. Many science-related controversies are discussed in popular science books and publications, such as the long-running debates over biological determinism and the biological components of intelligence, stirred by popular books such as The Mismeasure of Man and The Bell Curve . The purpose of scientific literature
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#17327827120221452-503: Is rejected to the environment and an internal heat exchanger (the evaporator , or Fan Coil Unit, FCU) with the piped refrigerant being circulated between the two. The FCU is then connected to the spaces to be cooled by ventilation ducts . Floor standing air conditioners are similar to this type of air conditioner but sit within spaces that need cooling. Large central cooling plants may use intermediate coolant such as chilled water pumped into air handlers or fan coil units near or in
1518-469: Is the European seasonal energy efficiency ratio (ESEER). Efficiency is strongly affected by the humidity of the air to be cooled. Dehumidifying the air before attempting to cool it can reduce subsequent cooling costs by as much as 90 percent. Thus, reducing dehumidifying costs can materially affect overall air conditioning costs. This type of controller uses an infrared LED to relay commands from
1584-408: Is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior temperature (sometimes referred to as 'comfort cooling') and in some cases also strictly controlling the humidity of internal air. Air conditioning can be achieved using a mechanical 'air conditioner' or by other methods, including passive cooling and ventilative cooling . Air conditioning is a member of
1650-551: Is to inform and persuade peers regarding the validity of observations and conclusions and the forensic efficacy of methods. Popular science attempts to inform and convince scientific outsiders (sometimes along with scientists in other fields) of the significance of data and conclusions and to celebrate the results. Statements in the scientific literature are often qualified and tentative, emphasizing that new observations and results are consistent with and similar to established knowledge wherein qualified scientists are assumed to recognize
1716-518: The International Energy Agency (IEA) 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used globally in 2016. The United Nations called for the technology to be made more sustainable to mitigate climate change and for the use of alternatives, like passive cooling, evaporative cooling , selective shading, windcatchers , and better thermal insulation . Air conditioning dates back to prehistory. Double-walled living quarters, with
1782-534: The West ). Cooling in traditional air conditioner systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which uses a refrigerant's forced circulation and phase change between gas and liquid to transfer heat. The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a fan coil unit in an air handler) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment such as
1848-400: The refrigeration cycle and act as an air source heat pump , thus heating instead of cooling the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as "reverse cycle air conditioners". The heat pump is significantly more energy-efficient than electric resistance heating , because it moves energy from air or groundwater to the heated space and the heat from purchased electrical energy. When
1914-648: The British population became not just increasingly literate but also well-educated, there was growing demand for science titles. Mary Somerville became an early and highly successful science writer of the nineteenth century. Her On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences (1834), intended for the mass audience, sold quite well. Arguably one of the first books in modern popular science, it contained few diagrams and very little mathematics. Ten editions of
1980-500: The Great Hall of Westminster Abbey with an apparatus of troughs and vats. Drebbel's contemporary Francis Bacon , like della Porta a believer in science communication , may not have been present at the demonstration, but in a book published later the same year, he described it as "experiment of artificial freezing" and said that "Nitre (or rather its spirit) is very cold, and hence nitre or salt when added to snow or ice intensifies
2046-465: The Plurality of Worlds were best-sellers. By 1830, astronomer John Herschel had recognized the need for the specific genre of popular science. In a letter to philosopher William Whewell , he wrote that the general public needed "digests of what is actually known in each particular branch of science... to give a connected view of what has been done, and what remains to be accomplished." Indeed, as
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2112-410: The air conditioner into a heat pump . They may be installed in a wall opening with the help of a special sleeve on the wall and a custom grill that is flush with the wall and window air conditioners can also be installed in a window, but without a custom grill. Packaged air conditioners (also known as self-contained units) are central systems that integrate into a single housing all the components of
2178-400: The air conditioner. These controllers are usually used in hotel rooms because they are permanently installed into a wall and hard-wired directly into the air conditioner unit, eliminating the need for batteries. * where the typical capacity is in kilowatt as follows: Ductless systems (often mini-split, though there are now ducted mini-split) typically supply conditioned and heated air to
2244-441: The air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning" in a patent claim which he filed that year, where he suggested that air conditioning was analogous to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process. He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories; thus, controlling the humidity that is necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted
2310-440: The atmosphere even in liquid-cooled chillers through the use of cooling towers . Chillers may be air- or liquid-cooled. A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit (such as a ductless split air conditioner). Hose systems, which can be monoblock or air-to-air , are vented to the outside via air ducts. The monoblock type collects
2376-499: The beginnings of the modern scientific revolution and the consequent need for explicit popular science writing. Although works such as Galileo 's 1632 " Il Saggiatore " and Robert Hooke 's 1665 " Micrographia " were read by both scientists and the public, Newton's 1687 Principia was incomprehensible for most readers, so popularizations of Newton's ideas soon followed. Popular science writing surged in countries such as France, where books such as Fontenelle 's 1686 Conversations on
2442-617: The biggest increases in India and China . Between 1995 and 2004, the proportion of urban households in China with air conditioners increased from 8% to 70%. As of 2015, nearly 100 million homes, or about 87% of US households, had air conditioning systems. In 2019, it was estimated that 90% of new single-family homes constructed in the US included air conditioning (ranging from 99% in the South to 62% in
2508-452: The book were published, and it was translated into multiple languages. It was the most popular science title from the publisher John Murray until On the Origin of Species (1859) by Charles Darwin . Popular science is a bridge between scientific literature as a professional medium of scientific research, and the realms of popular political and cultural discourse. The goal of the genre
2574-626: The building's indoor environment to remain relatively constant, largely independent of changes in external weather conditions and internal heat loads. They also enable deep plan buildings to be created and have allowed people to live comfortably in hotter parts of the world. In 1558, Giambattista della Porta described a method of chilling ice to temperatures far below its freezing point by mixing it with potassium nitrate (then called "nitre") in his popular science book Natural Magic . In 1620, Cornelis Drebbel demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" for James I of England , chilling part of
2640-416: The building. Variable refrigerant flow indoor units can also be turned off individually in unused spaces. The lower start-up power of VRF's DC inverter compressors and their inherent DC power requirements also allow VRF solar-powered heat pumps to be run using DC-providing solar panels. Split-system central air conditioners consist of two heat exchangers , an outside unit (the condenser ) from which heat
2706-518: The cold of the latter, the nitre by adding to its cold, but the salt by supplying activity to the cold of the snow." In 1758, Benjamin Franklin and John Hadley , a chemistry professor at the University of Cambridge , conducted experiments applying the principle of evaporation as a means to cool an object rapidly. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that the evaporation of highly volatile liquids (such as alcohol and ether ) could be used to drive down
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2772-400: The compression. There are several ways to modulate the cooling capacity in refrigeration or air conditioning and heating systems . The most common in air conditioning are: on-off cycling, hot gas bypass, use or not of liquid injection, manifold configurations of multiple compressors, mechanical modulation (also called digital), and inverter technology. Hot gas bypass involves injecting
2838-738: The debate over competing against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom. Electricity made the development of effective units possible. In 1901, American inventor Willis H. Carrier built what is considered the first modern electrical air conditioning unit. In 1902, he installed his first air-conditioning system, in the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing & Publishing Company in Brooklyn, New York . His invention controlled both
2904-565: The evaporator and the condenser into the same air path; the air first passes over the evaporator coil, where it is cooled and dehumidified before passing over the condenser coil, where it is warmed again before it is released back into the room. Free cooling can sometimes be selected when the external air is cooler than the internal air. Therefore, the compressor does not need to be used, resulting in high cooling efficiencies for these times. This may also be combined with seasonal thermal energy storage . Some air conditioning systems can reverse
2970-441: The first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars in 1939. Innovations in the latter half of the 20th century allowed more ubiquitous air conditioner use. In 1945, Robert Sherman of Lynn, Massachusetts , invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air. The first inverter air conditioners were released in 1980–1981. In 1954, Ned Cole,
3036-636: The first wall-mounted mini-split air conditioner was sold in 1968 in Japan by Mitsubishi Electric , where small home sizes motivated their development. The Mitsubishi model was the first air conditioner with a cross-flow fan . In 1969, the first mini-split air conditioner was sold in the US. Multi-zone ductless systems were invented by Daikin in 1973, and variable refrigerant flow systems (which can be thought of as larger multi-split systems) were also invented by Daikin in 1982. Both were first sold in Japan. Variable refrigerant flow systems when compared with central plant cooling from an air handler , eliminate
3102-400: The gas. The gas enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. The working area is the inter-lobe volume between the male and female rotors. It is larger at the intake end, and decreases along the length of the rotors until the exhaust port. This change in volume is
3168-408: The heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air). Most air source heat pumps become less efficient in outdoor temperatures lower than 4 °C or 40 °F. This is partly because ice forms on
3234-400: The heat pump is used efficiently during milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower. The coefficient of performance (COP) of an air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to the work required. Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1; however, the exact value
3300-465: The liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate. In 1842, Florida physician John Gorrie used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in Apalachicola, Florida . He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings. He envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Gorrie was granted
3366-403: The most common type of individual room air conditioner: one designed to sit on a window ledge. The units went on sale in 1932 at US$ 10,000 to $ 50,000 (the equivalent of $ 200,000 to $ 1,100,000 in 2023.) A year later, the first air conditioning systems for cars were offered for sale. Chrysler Motors introduced the first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit in 1935, and Packard became
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#17327827120223432-718: The nation’s premier air conditioning companies, builders, and social scientists. In addition, researchers from UT’s Health Service and Psychology Department studied the effects on the "artificially cooled humans." One of the more amusing discoveries was that each family reported being troubled with scorpions, the leading theory being that scorpions sought cool, shady places. Other reported changes in lifestyle were that mothers baked more, families ate heavier foods, and they were more apt to choose hot drinks. Air conditioner adoption tends to increase above around $ 10,000 annual household income in warmer areas. Global GDP growth explains around 85% of increased air condition adoption by 2050, while
3498-404: The need for large cool air ducts, air handlers, and chillers; instead cool refrigerant is transported through much smaller pipes to the indoor units in the spaces to be conditioned, thus allowing for less space above dropped ceilings and a lower structural impact, while also allowing for more individual and independent temperature control of spaces. The outdoor and indoor units can be spread across
3564-430: The outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil back to the condenser coil, to heat up and defrost. Therefore, some heat pump systems will have electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode to compensate for
3630-505: The relevance. By contrast, popular science emphasizes uniqueness and generality, taking a tone of factual authority absent from the scientific literature. Some usual features of popular science productions include: The purpose of scientific literature is to inform and persuade peers regarding the validity of observations and conclusions and the forensic efficacy of methods. Popular science attempts to inform and convince scientific outsiders (sometimes along with scientists in other fields) of
3696-498: The remaining 15% can be explained by climate change . As of 2016 an estimated 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used worldwide, with over half of them in China and USA , and a total cooling capacity of 11,675 gigawatts. The International Energy Agency predicted in 2018 that the number of air conditioning units would grow to around 4 billion units by 2050 and that the total cooling capacity would grow to around 23,000 GW, with
3762-402: The significance of data and conclusions and to celebrate the results. Statements in the scientific literature are often qualified and tentative, emphasizing that new observations and results are consistent with and similar to established knowledge wherein qualified scientists are assumed to recognize the relevance. By contrast, popular science often emphasizes uniqueness and generality and may have
3828-415: The spaces to be cooled which then duct or deliver cold air into the spaces to be conditioned, rather than ducting cold air directly to these spaces from the plant, which is not done due to the low density and heat capacity of air, which would require impractically large ducts. The chilled water is cooled by chillers in the plant, which uses a refrigeration cycle to cool water, often transferring its heat to
3894-427: The surrounding air. An air conditioner designed for an occupied space will typically achieve a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs. At the same time, the fan is slowed to reduce the evaporator temperature and condense more water. A dehumidifier uses the same refrigeration cycle but incorporates both
3960-485: The system to provide the peak cooling capacity. Each compressor can run or not in order to stage the cooling capacity of the unit. The turn down capacity is either 0/33/66 or 100% for a trio configuration and either 0/50 or 100% for a tandem. Popular science Popular science (also called pop-science or popsci ) is an interpretation of science intended for a general audience . While science journalism focuses on recent scientific developments, popular science
4026-412: The temperature and humidity, which helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment at the printing plant. Later, together with six other employees, Carrier formed The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America , a business that in 2020 employed 53,000 people and was valued at $ 18.6 billion. In 1906, Stuart W. Cramer of Charlotte, North Carolina , was exploring ways to add moisture to
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#17327827120224092-437: The temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They experimented with the bulb of a mercury-in-glass thermometer as their object. They used a bellows to speed up the evaporation . They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to −14 °C (7 °F) while the ambient temperature was 18 °C (64 °F). Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water 0 °C (32 °F),
4158-405: The temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter. Newer models have improved cold-weather performance, with efficient heating capacity down to −14 °F (−26 °C). However, there is always a chance that the humidity that condenses on the heat exchanger of the outdoor unit could freeze, even in models that have improved cold-weather performance, requiring
4224-646: The term and incorporated it into the name of his company. Domestic air conditioning soon took off. In 1914, the first domestic air conditioning was installed in Minneapolis in the home of Charles Gilbert Gates . It is, however, possible that the considerable device (c. 2.1 m × 1.8 m × 6.1 m; 7 ft × 6 ft × 20 ft) was never used, as the house remained uninhabited (Gates had already died in October 1913.) In 1931, H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman developed what would become
4290-537: The water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The air-to-air type re-evaporates the water, discharges it through the ducted hose, and can run continuously. Many but not all portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct, negatively impacting their overall cooling efficiency. Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as a dehumidification function. The packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC), through-the-wall, and window air conditioners are similar. These units are installed on
4356-510: Was not uncommon, and as recently as 1791, Erasmus Darwin wrote The Botanic Garden , two long poems intended to interest and educate readers in botany. Many Greek and Roman scientific handbooks were written for the lay audience, and this "handbook" tradition continued right through to the invention of the printing press, with much later examples including books of secrets such as Giambattista Della Porta 's 1558 " Magia Naturalis " and Isabella Cortese 's 1561 " Secreti ". The 17th century saw
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