60-685: Ovis orientalis vignei The urial ( / ˈ ʊər i ə l / OOR -ee-əl ; Ovis vignei ), also known as arkars , shapo , or shapu , is a wild sheep native to Central and South Asia . It is listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List . Ovis vignei was the scientific name proposed by Edward Blyth in 1841 for wild sheep in the Sulaiman Mountains . The specific name honours Godfrey Vigne (1801–1863). The vignei subspecies group consists of six individual subspecies: Urial males have large horns, curling outwards from
120-658: A broad one. Static magnetic fields , for reasons still unknown, retard animal development. The quality and quantity of usable meat depends on the animal's plane of nutrition , i.e., whether it is over- or underfed. Scientists disagree about how exactly the plane of nutrition influences carcase composition. The composition of the diet, especially the amount of protein provided, is an important factor regulating animal growth. Ruminants , which may digest cellulose , are better adapted to poor-quality diets, but their ruminal microorganisms degrade high-quality protein if supplied in excess. Because producing high-quality protein animal feed
180-663: A mature bighorn ram can weigh 14 kg (31 lb) – as much as the bones of the rest of its body put together. Rams use their horns to fight with each other for dominance and the right to mate with females. In most cases, they do not injure each other because they hit each other head-to-head, and their curved horns do not strike each other's bodies. They are also protected by having very thick skin and double-layered skulls. Wild sheep have very keen senses of sight and hearing . When detecting predators, wild sheep most often flee, usually to higher ground, but they can also fight back. The Dall sheep has been known to butt wolves off
240-587: A predetermined age or weight, livestock are usually transported en masse to the slaughterhouse. Depending on its length and circumstances, this may exert stress and injuries on the animals, and some may die en route . Unnecessary stress in transport may adversely affect the quality of the meat. In particular, the muscles of stressed animals are low in water and glycogen , and their pH fails to attain acidic values, all of which results in poor meat quality. Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from
300-895: A result of cobalt deficiency in the soil. Plant toxins are a risk to grazing animals; for instance, sodium fluoroacetate , found in some African and Australian plants, kills by disrupting the cellular metabolism . Some man-made pollutants such as methylmercury and some pesticide residues present a particular hazard as they bioaccumulate in meat, potentially poisoning consumers. Practices such as confinement in factory farming have generated concerns for animal welfare . Animals have abnormal behaviors such as tail-biting, cannibalism, and feather pecking . Invasive procedures such as beak trimming , castration , and ear notching have similarly been questioned. Breeding for high productivity may affect welfare, as when broiler chickens are bred to be very large and to grow rapidly. Broilers often have leg deformities and become lame, and many die from
360-441: A vital role in digesting food; they eructate , and rechew the cud to enable them to digest and live on low-quality, rough plant materials. Sheep conserve water well, and can live in fairly dry environments. The bodies of wild sheep (and some domestic breeds) are covered by a coat of thick hair to protect them from cold. This coat contains long, stiff hairs, called kemps, over a short, woolly undercoat, which grows in autumn and
420-524: Is characterized by males competing for females in estrus. Social rank in rams is established by male-male competition during the rutting period. Females select from dominant males based on sexually selected characteristics such as body size and horn size, as those traits are desirable in offspring. Females typically are separated from males outside the rut, but during the rut, females and males are found together. Females that are oestrous isolate themselves from other ewes, and may be less mobile. The rut
480-617: Is ovine , and the collective term for sheep is flock or mob . The term herd is also occasionally used in this sense, generally for large flocks. Many specialist terms relating to domestic sheep are used. Sheep are fairly small compared to other ungulates ; in most species, adults weigh less than 100 kg (220 lb). Males are usually heavier than females by a significant amount. Wild sheep are mostly found in hilly or mountainous habitats. Their diets consist mainly of grasses , as well as other plants and lichens . Like other ruminants , they have four-chambered stomachs , which play
540-560: Is a genus of mammals , part of the Caprinae subfamily of the ruminant family Bovidae . Its seven highly sociable species are known as sheep or ovines . Domestic sheep are members of the genus, and are thought to be descended from the wild mouflon of central and southwest Asia . Female sheep are called ewes , males are called rams or less frequently bucks or tups , neutered males are called wethers , and young sheep are called lambs . The adjective applying to sheep
600-411: Is a major contributor to environmental issues including global warming , pollution, and biodiversity loss , at every scale from local to global. Some people choose not to eat meat ( vegetarians and vegans ) for reasons such as ethics , environmental effects, health concerns, or religious dietary rules. However, meat is important to economies and cultures around the world. The word meat comes from
660-497: Is a risk; in 2013, products in Europe labelled as beef actually contained horse meat . Meat can be cooked in many ways, including braising , broiling , frying , grilling , and roasting . Meat can be cured by smoking , which preserves and flavors food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering wood. Other methods of curing include pickling , salting , and air-drying. Some recipes call for raw meat; steak tartare
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#1732794319699720-479: Is also linked with different ewe behaviour than during nonrutting periods. These changes are characterized by decreased feeding, increased time observing their surroundings, and increased behaviour changes. Ewes are also predicted to be slightly receptive to the displays of the rams. Meat Meat is animal tissue , often muscle , that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed
780-404: Is anticipated. Heat regulation in livestock is of economic significance, as mammals attempt to maintain a constant optimal body temperature. Low temperatures tend to prolong animal development and high temperatures tend to delay it. Depending on their size, body shape and insulation through tissue and fur, some animals have a relatively narrow zone of temperature tolerance and others (e.g. cattle)
840-417: Is being reversed by consumer demand for leaner meat. The fatty deposits near the muscle fibers in meats soften meat when it is cooked, improve its flavor, and make the meat seem juicier. Fat around meat further contains cholesterol . The increase in meat consumption after 1960 is associated with significant imbalances of fat and cholesterol in the human diet. Biomass of mammals on Earth Upon reaching
900-411: Is consumed, and egg and/or dairy consumption may or may not be strictly restricted. The type of meat consumed varies between different cultures. The amount and kind of meat consumed varies by income, both between countries and within a given country. Horses are commonly eaten in countries such as France, Italy, Germany and Japan. Horses and other large mammals such as reindeer were hunted during
960-518: Is distributed from northeastern Iran, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and southwestern Kazakhstan to northern Pakistan and Ladakh in northwestern India. It prefers grassland , open woodland and gentle slopes, but also inhabits cold arid zones with little vegetation. The mating season begins in September. Rams select four or five ewes, which give birth to a lamb after a gestation of five months. Ovis See text . Ovis
1020-445: Is expensive, several techniques are employed or experimented with to ensure maximum utilization of protein. These include the treatment of feed with formalin to protect amino acids during their passage through the rumen , the recycling of manure by feeding it back to cattle mixed with feed concentrates, or the conversion of petroleum hydrocarbons to protein through microbial action. In plant feed, environmental factors influence
1080-877: Is made from minced raw beef. Pâtés are made with ground meat and fat, often including liver . Meat, in particular red and processed meat, is linked to a variety of health risks. The 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans asked men and teenage boys to increase their consumption of vegetables or other underconsumed foods (fruits, whole grains, and dairy) while reducing intake of protein foods (meats, poultry, and eggs) that they currently overconsume. Toxic compounds including heavy metals , mycotoxins , pesticide residues, dioxins , polychlorinated biphenyl can contaminate meat. Processed, smoked and cooked meat may contain carcinogens such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons . Toxins may be introduced to meat as part of animal feed, as veterinary drug residues, or during processing and cooking. Such compounds are often metabolized in
1140-501: Is particularly prevalent in the US, but has been banned in the EU, partly because it causes antimicrobial resistance in pathogenic microorganisms. The biochemical composition of meat varies in complex ways depending on the species, breed, sex, age, plane of nutrition, training and exercise of the animal, as well as on the anatomical location of the musculature involved. Even between animals of
1200-612: Is shed in spring. This woolly undercoat has been developed in many domestic sheep breeds into a fleece of long wool , with selection against kemp hairs in these breeds. The fleece covers the body (in a few breeds also the face and legs) and is used for fibre . Domestic sheep are also reared for their milk and meat (which is called lamb or mutton depending on the age of the animal). In wild sheep, both rams and ewes have horns , while in domestic sheep (depending upon breed ) horns may be present in both rams and ewes, in rams only, or in neither. Rams' horns may be very large – those of
1260-420: Is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor , but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidizes , which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis contributes to conditioning: hypoxanthine , a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to meat's flavor and odor, as do other products of
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#17327943196991320-450: Is very low in carbohydrates and does not contain dietary fiber. The fat content of meat varies widely with the species and breed of animal, the way in which the animal was raised, what it was fed, the part of the body, and the methods of butchering and cooking. Wild animals such as deer are leaner than farm animals, leading those concerned about fat content to choose game such as venison . Decades of breeding meat animals for fatness
1380-478: The Old English word mete , meaning food in general. In modern usage, meat primarily means skeletal muscle with its associated fat and connective tissue, but it can include offal , other edible organs such as liver and kidney . The term is sometimes used in a more restrictive sense to mean the flesh of mammalian species (pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, etc.) raised and prepared for human consumption, to
1440-805: The Translational Genomics Research Institute showed that nearly half (47%) of the meat and poultry in U.S. grocery stores were contaminated with S. aureus , with more than half (52%) of those bacteria resistant to antibiotics. A 2018 investigation by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism and The Guardian found that around 15 percent of the US population suffers from foodborne illnesses every year. The investigation highlighted unsanitary conditions in US-based meat plants, which included meat products covered in excrement and abscesses "filled with pus". Complete cooking and
1500-649: The breeding of animals to improve meat production. In the postwar period , governments gave farmers guaranteed prices to increase animal production. The effect was to raise output at the cost of increased inputs such as of animal feed and veterinary medicines, as well as of animal disease and environmental pollution. In 1966, the United States, the United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, began factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs. Intensive animal farming became globalized in
1560-418: The domestication of vertebrates , including chickens , sheep , goats , pigs , horses , and cattle , starting around 11,000 years ago. Since then, selective breeding has enabled farmers to produce meat with the qualities desired by producers and consumers. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat. Its quality is affected by many factors, including the genetics, health, and nutritional status of
1620-929: The National Cancer Institute published results of a study which found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done. While eating muscle meat raw may be the only way to avoid HCAs fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 100 °C (212 °F) creates "negligible amounts" of HCAs. Microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90%. Nitrosamines , present in processed and cooked foods, are carcinogenic, being linked to colon cancer. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , present in processed, smoked and cooked foods, are similarly carcinogenic. Bacterial contamination has been seen with meat products. A 2011 study by
1680-546: The animal genome . To enable such manipulation, the genomes of many animals are being mapped . Some research has already seen commercial application. For instance, a recombinant bacterium has been developed which improves the digestion of grass in the rumen of cattle, and some specific features of muscle fibers have been genetically altered. Experimental reproductive cloning of commercially important meat animals such as sheep, pig or cattle has been successful. Multiple asexual reproduction of animals bearing desirable traits
1740-484: The animal involved. Without preservation, bacteria and fungi decompose and spoil unprocessed meat within hours or days. Under optimal conditions, meat is edible raw , but is often normally eaten cooked—such as by stewing or roasting —or processed —such as by smoking or salting . The consumption of meat (especially red and processed meat) increases the risk of certain negative health outcomes including cancer, coronary heart disease , and diabetes . Meat production
1800-662: The animal to store energy and consisting of "true fats" ( esters of glycerol with fatty acids ), or intramuscular fat, which contains phospholipids and cholesterol . Meat can be broadly classified as "red" or "white" depending on the concentration of myoglobin in muscle fiber. When myoglobin is exposed to oxygen , reddish oxymyoglobin develops, making myoglobin-rich meat appear red. The redness of meat depends on species, animal age, and fiber type: Red meat contains more narrow muscle fibers that tend to operate over long periods without rest, while white meat contains more broad fibers that tend to work in short fast bursts, such as
1860-413: The animal's commercial value. Genetic analysis continues to reveal the genetic mechanisms that control numerous aspects of the endocrine system and, through it, meat growth and quality. Genetic engineering techniques can shorten breeding programs significantly because they allow for the identification and isolation of genes coding for desired traits, and for the reincorporation of these genes into
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1920-471: The availability of crucial nutrients or micronutrients , a lack or excess of which can cause a great many ailments. In Australia, where the soil contains limited phosphate , cattle are fed additional phosphate to increase the efficiency of beef production. Also in Australia, cattle and sheep in certain areas were often found losing their appetite and dying in the midst of rich pasture; this was found to be
1980-436: The best possible genetic quality, and the efficiency of this method is improved through the administration of hormones that synchronize the ovulation cycles within groups of females. Growth hormones , particularly anabolic agents such as steroids , are used in some countries to accelerate muscle growth in animals. This practice has given rise to the beef hormone controversy , an international trade dispute. It may decrease
2040-551: The body to form harmful by-products. Negative effects depend on the individual genome, diet, and history of the consumer. The consumption of processed and red meat carries an increased risk of cancer. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a specialized agency of the World Health Organization (WHO), classified processed meat (e.g., bacon, ham, hot dogs, sausages) as, "carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on sufficient evidence in humans that
2100-480: The brief flight of the chicken. The meat of adult mammals such as cows , sheep , and horses is considered red, while chicken and turkey breast meat is considered white. Muscle tissue is high in protein, containing all of the essential amino acids , and in most cases is a good source of zinc , vitamin B 12 , selenium , phosphorus , niacin , vitamin B 6 , choline , riboflavin and iron. Several forms of meat are high in vitamin K . Muscle tissue
2160-405: The carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. After exsanguination, the carcass is dressed; that is, the head, feet, hide (except hogs and some veal), excess fat, viscera and offal are removed, leaving only bones and edible muscle. Cattle and pig carcases, but not those of sheep, are then split in half along
2220-1131: The consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer." IARC classified red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect." Cancer Research UK , National Health Service (NHS) and the National Cancer Institute have stated that red and processed meat intake increases risk of bowel cancer . The American Cancer Society in their "Diet and Physical Activity Guideline", stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods." The Canadian Cancer Society have stated that "eating red and processed meat increases cancer risk". A 2021 review found an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat. Cooking muscle meat creates heterocyclic amines (HCAs), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at
2280-571: The decomposition of muscle fat and protein. When meat is industrially processed, additives are used to protect or modify its flavor or color, to improve its tenderness, juiciness or cohesiveness, or to aid with its preservation . A bioarchaeological (specifically, isotopic analysis ) study of early medieval England found, based on the funerary record, that high-meat protein diets were extremely rare, and that (contrary to previously held assumptions) elites did not consume more meat than non-elites, and men did not consume more meat than women. In
2340-488: The demands of customers. The trend towards selling meat in pre-packaged cuts has increased the demand for larger breeds of cattle, better suited to producing such cuts. Animals not previously exploited for their meat are now being farmed, including mammals such as antelope , zebra, water buffalo and camel, as well as non-mammals, such as crocodile, emu and ostrich. Organic farming supports an increasing demand for meat produced to that standard. Several factors affect
2400-455: The exclusion of fish , other seafood, insects , poultry, or other animals. Paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the organized hunting of large animals such as bison and deer . Animals were domesticated in the Neolithic , enabling the systematic production of meat and
2460-653: The face of cliffs. Sheep have scent glands on their faces and feet. Communication through the scent glands is not well understood, but is thought to be important for sexual signaling. Males can smell females that are in estrus , and rams mark their territories by rubbing scent on rocks. Seven species (and numerous subspecies) of sheep are currently recognized. The main recognized divisions are: Sheep are social animals and live in groups, called flocks. This helps them to avoid predators and stay warm in cold weather by huddling together. Flocks of sheep need to keep moving to find new grazing areas and more favourable weather as
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2520-444: The first day after death, glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen , about 18 g per kg, increases the water-holding capacity and tenderness of cooked meat. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as adenosine triphosphate is used up. This causes the muscle proteins actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin . This in turn lowers
2580-456: The glycolytic enzymes – are involved in glycolysis , the conversion of sugars into high-energy molecules, especially adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The two most abundant myofibrillar proteins, myosin and actin , form the muscle's overall structure and enable it to deliver power, consuming ATP in the process. The remaining protein mass includes connective tissue ( collagen and elastin ). Fat in meat can be either adipose tissue , used by
2640-450: The growth and development of meat. Some economically important traits in meat animals are heritable to some degree, and can thus be selected for by animal breeding . In cattle, certain growth features are controlled by recessive genes which have not so far been controlled, complicating breeding. One such trait is dwarfism ; another is the doppelender or " double muscling " condition, which causes muscle hypertrophy and thereby increases
2700-533: The increase. Overall, diets that include meat are the most common worldwide according to the results of a 2018 Ipsos MORI study of 16–64 years olds in 28 countries. Ipsos states "An omnivorous diet is the most common diet globally, with non-meat diets (which can include fish) followed by over a tenth of the global population." Approximately 87% of people include meat in their diet in some frequency. 73% of meat eaters included it in their diet regularly and 14% consumed meat only occasionally or infrequently. Estimates of
2760-688: The late Paleolithic in western Europe. Dogs are consumed in China, South Korea and Vietnam. Dogs are occasionally eaten in the Arctic regions. Historically, dog meat has been consumed in various parts of the world, such as Hawaii, Japan, Switzerland and Mexico. Cats are sometimes eaten, such as in Peru. Guinea pigs are raised for their flesh in the Andes . Whales and dolphins are hunted, partly for their flesh, in several countries. Misidentification
2820-407: The later years of the 20th century, replacing traditional stock rearing in countries around the world. In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%. Modern agriculture employs techniques such as progeny testing to speed selective breeding , allowing the rapid acquisition of the qualities desired by meat producers. For instance, in
2880-455: The meat industry than in any other British business" except finance. The US was a meat importing country by 1926. Truncated lifespan as a result of intensive breeding allows more meat to be produced from fewer animals. The world cattle population was about 600 million in 1929, with 700 million sheep and goats and 300 million pigs. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization ,
2940-419: The meat's water-holding capacity, so the meat loses water or "weeps". In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that becomes tough when cooked. Over time, muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue , and rigor mortis resolves. These changes mean that meat
3000-425: The mid ventral axis, and the carcase is cut into wholesale pieces. The dressing and cutting sequence, long a province of manual labor, is being progressively automated. Under hygienic conditions and without other treatment, meat can be stored at above its freezing point (−1.5 °C) for about six weeks without spoilage, during which time it undergoes an aging process that increases its tenderness and flavor. During
3060-574: The nineteenth century, meat consumption in Britain was the highest in Europe, exceeded only by that in British colonies. In the 1830s consumption per head in Britain was about 34 kilograms (75 lb) a year, rising to 59 kilograms (130 lb) in 1912. In 1904, laborers consumed 39 kilograms (87 lb) a year while aristocrats ate 140 kilograms (300 lb). There were some 43,000 butcher's shops in Britain in 1910, with "possibly more money invested in
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#17327943196993120-431: The non-meat diets were analysed. About 3% of people followed vegan diets, where consumption of meat, eggs, and dairy are abstained from. About 5% of people followed vegetarian diets, where consumption of meat is abstained from, but egg and/or dairy consumption is not strictly restricted. About 3% of people followed pescetarian diets, where consumption of the meat of land animals is abstained from, fish meat and other seafood
3180-435: The one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide , shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol , or shocking them with electric current. The exsanguination is accomplished by severing the carotid artery and the jugular vein in cattle and sheep, and the anterior vena cava in pigs. Draining as much blood as possible from
3240-459: The overall consumption for white meat has increased from the 20th to the 21st centuries. Poultry meat has increased by 76.6% per kilo per capita and pig meat by 19.7%. Bovine meat has decreased from 10.4 kg (22 lb 15 oz) per capita in 1990 to 9.6 kg (21 lb 3 oz) per capita in 2009. FAO analysis found that 357 million tonnes of meat were produced in 2021, 53% more than in 2000, with chicken meat representing more than half
3300-672: The same litter and sex there are considerable differences in such parameters as the percentage of intramuscular fat. Adult mammalian muscle consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble substances. These include organic compounds, especially amino acids , and inorganic substances such as minerals. Muscle proteins are either soluble in water ( sarcoplasmic proteins, about 11.5 percent of total muscle mass) or in concentrated salt solutions ( myofibrillar proteins, about 5.5 percent of mass). There are several hundred sarcoplasmic proteins. Most of them –
3360-402: The seasons change. In each flock, a sheep, usually a mature ram, is followed by the others. This "leader to follower" relationship can be both a positive and negative for flocks of Ovis aries . Although there is safety in numbers, it has been reported that the following of one mature ram can bring flocks to slaughter in many situations where the mature ram misguides the flock. Mating in sheep
3420-424: The stress of handling and transport. Meat producers may seek to improve the fertility of female animals through the administration of gonadotrophic or ovulation -inducing hormones . In pig production, sow infertility is a common problem – possibly due to excessive fatness. No methods currently exist to augment the fertility of male animals. Artificial insemination is now routinely used to produce animals of
3480-514: The tenderness of meat, although research on this is inconclusive, and have other effects on the composition of the muscle flesh. Where castration is used to improve control over male animals, its side effects can be counteracted by the administration of hormones. Myostatin has been used to produce muscle hypertrophy . Sedatives may be administered to animals to counteract stress factors and increase weight gain. The feeding of antibiotics to certain animals increases growth rates. This practice
3540-477: The top of the head turning in to end somewhere behind the head; females have shorter, compressed horns. The horns of the males are up to 100 cm (39 in) long. The shoulder height of an adult male urial is between 80 and 90 cm (31 and 35 in). The urial is native to montane areas in the Pamir Mountains , Hindu Kush and Himalayas up to an elevation of 4,500 m (14,800 ft). It
3600-445: The wake of well-publicized health concerns associated with saturated fats in the 1980s, the fat content of United Kingdom beef, pork and lamb fell from 20–26 percent to 4–8 percent within a few decades, due to both selective breeding for leanness and changed methods of butchery. Methods of genetic engineering that could improve the meat-producing qualities of animals are becoming available. Meat production continues to be shaped by
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