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59-417: The VOR system was first introduced in the 1930s, but did not enter significant commercial use until the early 1950s. It became much more practical with the introduction of low-cost solid state receivers in the 1960s. DME was a modification of World War II -era navigation systems like Gee-H , and began development in 1946. Like VOR, it only became practical with the introduction of solid state receivers during

118-501: A field-effect transistor , or may have two kinds of charge carriers in bipolar junction transistor devices. Compared with the vacuum tube , transistors are generally smaller and require less power to operate. Certain vacuum tubes have advantages over transistors at very high operating frequencies or high operating voltages, such as Traveling-wave tubes and Gyrotrons . Many types of transistors are made to standardized specifications by multiple manufacturers. The thermionic triode ,

177-532: A p-n-p transistor symbol, the arrow " P oints i N P roudly". However, this does not apply to MOSFET-based transistor symbols as the arrow is typically reversed (i.e. the arrow for the n-p-n points inside). The field-effect transistor , sometimes called a unipolar transistor , uses either electrons (in n-channel FET ) or holes (in p-channel FET ) for conduction. The four terminals of the FET are named source , gate , drain , and body ( substrate ). On most FETs,

236-476: A vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony . The triode, however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of power. In 1909, physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode oscillator . Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925, intended as a solid-state replacement for

295-475: A company named Transis-tronics released a solid-state amplifier, the TEC S-15. The replacement of bulky, fragile, energy-hungry vacuum tubes by transistors in the 1960s and 1970s created a revolution not just in technology but in people's habits, making possible the first truly portable consumer electronics such as the transistor radio , cassette tape player , walkie-talkie and quartz watch , as well as

354-578: A device had been built. In 1934, inventor Oskar Heil patented a similar device in Europe. From November 17 to December 23, 1947, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T 's Bell Labs in Murray Hill, New Jersey , performed experiments and observed that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal of germanium , a signal was produced with the output power greater than the input. Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw

413-600: A few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity gradually increased as better transistors became available and amplifier architecture evolved. Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are common and relatively inexpensive. Before transistors were developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves" or just "valves") were the main active components in electronic equipment. The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace vacuum tubes in most applications are Transistors may have

472-425: A field-effect transistor (FET) by trying to modulate the conductivity of a semiconductor, but was unsuccessful, mainly due to problems with the surface states , the dangling bond , and the germanium and copper compound materials. Trying to understand the mysterious reasons behind this failure led them instead to invent the bipolar point-contact and junction transistors . In 1948, the point-contact transistor

531-431: A hybrid was due largely to it being easier to measure and then plot on a map. With VOR/DME, measurement from a single station reveals an angle and range, which can be easily drawn on a chart. Using a system based on two angles, as an example, requires two measurements at different frequencies (or using two radios) and then the angles plotted from both on a single chart which may be difficult in a cramped cockpit. Eventually,

590-416: A location directly, like Decca Navigator and Loran-C . VOR/DME eventually won the standardization effort, due to a number of factors. One was that the direct measurement systems like Loran were generally much more expensive to implement (and would be into the 1980s) while Decca had problems with static interference from lightning strikes because of its low 70 to 129 kHz frequency. The choice of VOR/DME as

649-412: A particular type, varies depending on the collector current. In the example of a light-switch circuit, as shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to ensure the transistor is saturated. The base resistor value is calculated from the supply voltage, transistor C-E junction voltage drop, collector current, and amplification factor beta. The common-emitter amplifier is designed so that

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708-439: A sealed tube. Although the first solid-state electronic device was the cat's whisker detector , a crude semiconductor diode invented around 1904, solid-state electronics started with the invention of the transistor in 1947. Before that, all electronic equipment used vacuum tubes , because vacuum tubes were the only electronic components that could amplify —an essential capability in all electronics. The transistor, which

767-467: A silicon MOS transistor in 1959 and successfully demonstrated a working MOS device with their Bell Labs team in 1960. Their team included E. E. LaBate and E. I. Povilonis who fabricated the device; M. O. Thurston, L. A. D’Asaro, and J. R. Ligenza who developed the diffusion processes, and H. K. Gummel and R. Lindner who characterized the device. With its high scalability , much lower power consumption, and higher density than bipolar junction transistors,

826-605: A small change in voltage ( V in ) changes the small current through the base of the transistor whose current amplification combined with the properties of the circuit means that small swings in V in produce large changes in V out . Various configurations of single transistor amplifiers are possible, with some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both. From mobile phones to televisions , vast numbers of products include amplifiers for sound reproduction , radio transmission , and signal processing . The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely supplied

885-440: A type of 3D non-planar multi-gate MOSFET, originated from the research of Digh Hisamoto and his team at Hitachi Central Research Laboratory in 1989. Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics , many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions. The invention of the first transistor at Bell Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009. Other Milestones include

944-416: A weaker input signal, acting as an amplifier . It can also be used as an electrically controlled switch , where the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements. There are two types of transistors, with slight differences in how they are used: The top image in this section represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. A charge flows between emitter and collector terminals depending on

1003-461: A working bipolar NPN junction amplifying germanium transistor. Bell announced the discovery of this new "sandwich" transistor in a press release on July 4, 1951. The first high-frequency transistor was the surface-barrier germanium transistor developed by Philco in 1953, capable of operating at frequencies up to 60 MHz . They were made by etching depressions into an n-type germanium base from both sides with jets of indium(III) sulfate until it

1062-418: Is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power . It is one of the basic building blocks of modern electronics . It is composed of semiconductor material , usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because

1121-458: Is also used as an adjective for devices in which semiconductor electronics that have no moving parts replace devices with moving parts, such as the solid-state relay , in which transistor switches are used in place of a moving-arm electromechanical relay , or the solid-state drive (SSD), a type of semiconductor memory used in computers to replace hard disk drives , which store data on a rotating disk. The term solid-state became popular at

1180-481: Is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node. For low noise at narrow bandwidth , the higher input resistance of the FET is advantageous. FETs are divided into two families: junction FET ( JFET ) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET ( MOSFET ), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs,

1239-421: Is often easier and cheaper to use a standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system. A transistor can use a small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of terminals, a property called gain . It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or current, proportional to

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1298-538: The VORTAC system. During the mid-1960s, ICAO began the process of introducing a standardized radio navigation system for medium-area coverage on the order of a few hundred kilometres. This system would replace the older Low-frequency radio range and similar systems used to navigate over national ranges. A number of proposals were submitted, including ones based solely on angle measurements like VOR, solely on distance measures like DME, combinations, or systems that output

1357-448: The cathode-ray tube (CRT) was still a vacuum tube. It meant only the chassis was 100% solid-state, not including the CRT. Early advertisements spelled out this distinction, but later advertisements assumed the audience had already been educated about it and shortened it to just "100% solid state". LED displays can be said to be truly 100% solid-state. Transistor A transistor

1416-546: The metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET), the MOSFET was invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960. Transistors revolutionized the field of electronics and paved the way for smaller and cheaper radios , calculators , computers , and other electronic devices. Most transistors are made from very pure silicon , and some from germanium , but certain other semiconductor materials are sometimes used. A transistor may have only one kind of charge carrier in

1475-399: The surface state barrier that prevented the external electric field from penetrating the material. In 1955, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick accidentally grew a layer of silicon dioxide over the silicon wafer, for which they observed surface passivation effects. By 1957 Frosch and Derick, using masking and predeposition, were able to manufacture silicon dioxide field effect transistors;

1534-480: The 1960s. In 1948, the United States Congress directed civilian and military aviation to standardize on VOR/DME equipment. However, the military secretly developed a largely duplicate system called TACAN . The system was revealed in 1952, but work continued into 1955, when the redundancy of effort caused controversy. The following year an agreement was reached, where civilian operators would adopt

1593-580: The FAA began to integrate their VOR/DME facilities with stations based on the TACAN standard, and the stations are called VORTAC. Then, most aviation moved to GNSS and GPS satellite navigation, and only use these older systems as a backup. Solid state (electronics) Solid-state electronics are semiconductor electronics: electronic equipment that use semiconductor devices such as transistors , diodes and integrated circuits (ICs). The term

1652-412: The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits, allowing the integration of more than 10,000 transistors in a single IC. Bardeen and Brattain's 1948 inversion layer concept forms the basis of CMOS technology today. The CMOS (complementary MOS ) was invented by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963. The first report of a floating-gate MOSFET

1711-775: The Regency Division of Industrial Development Engineering Associates, I.D.E.A. and Texas Instruments of Dallas, Texas, the TR-1 was manufactured in Indianapolis, Indiana. It was a near pocket-sized radio with four transistors and one germanium diode. The industrial design was outsourced to the Chicago firm of Painter, Teague and Petertil. It was initially released in one of six colours: black, ivory, mandarin red, cloud grey, mahogany and olive green. Other colours shortly followed. The first production all-transistor car radio

1770-431: The basis of modern digital electronics since the late 20th century, paving the way for the digital age . The US Patent and Trademark Office calls it a "groundbreaking invention that transformed life and culture around the world". Its ability to be mass-produced by a highly automated process ( semiconductor device fabrication ), from relatively basic materials, allows astonishingly low per-transistor costs. MOSFETs are

1829-400: The beginning of the semiconductor era in the 1960s to distinguish this new technology. A semiconductor device works by controlling an electric current consisting of electrons or holes moving within a solid crystalline piece of semiconducting material such as silicon , while the thermionic vacuum tubes it replaced worked by controlling a current of electrons or ions in a vacuum within

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1888-404: The body is connected to the source inside the package, and this will be assumed for the following description. In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals, hence the current flowing between

1947-437: The collector to the emitter. If the voltage difference between the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the supply voltage. This is called saturation because the current is flowing from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to be on . The use of bipolar transistors for switching applications requires biasing

2006-455: The concept of a field-effect transistor (FET) in 1926, but it was not possible to construct a working device at that time. The first working device was a point-contact transistor invented in 1947 by physicists John Bardeen , Walter Brattain , and William Shockley at Bell Labs who shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for their achievement. The most widely used type of transistor is

2065-445: The concept of an inversion layer, forms the basis of CMOS and DRAM technology today. In the early years of the semiconductor industry , companies focused on the junction transistor , a relatively bulky device that was difficult to mass-produce , limiting it to several specialized applications. Field-effect transistors (FETs) were theorized as potential alternatives, but researchers could not get them to work properly, largely due to

2124-449: The controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually, but many more in miniature form are found embedded in integrated circuits . Because transistors are the key active components in practically all modern electronics , many people consider them one of the 20th century's greatest inventions. Physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld proposed

2183-559: The current in the base. Because the base and emitter connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between them. The amount of this drop, determined by the transistor's material, is referred to as V BE . (Base Emitter Voltage) Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for low-power applications such as logic gates . Important parameters for this application include

2242-456: The current switched, the voltage handled, and the switching speed, characterized by the rise and fall times . In a switching circuit, the goal is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of an open circuit when off, the short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry,

2301-460: The drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage ( V GS ) is increased, the drain–source current ( I DS ) increases exponentially for V GS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate: ( I DS ∝ ( V GS − V T ) , where V T is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the " space-charge-limited " region above threshold. A quadratic behavior

2360-463: The first planar transistors, in which drain and source were adjacent at the same surface. They showed that silicon dioxide insulated, protected silicon wafers and prevented dopants from diffusing into the wafer. After this, J.R. Ligenza and W.G. Spitzer studied the mechanism of thermally grown oxides, fabricated a high quality Si/ SiO 2 stack and published their results in 1960. Following this research, Mohamed Atalla and Dawon Kahng proposed

2419-413: The first practical computers and mobile phones . Other examples of solid state electronic devices are the microprocessor chip, LED lamp, solar cell , charge coupled device (CCD) image sensor used in cameras, and semiconductor laser . Also during the 1960s and 1970s, television set manufacturers switched from vacuum tubes to semiconductors, and advertised sets as "100% solid state" even though

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2478-454: The following limitations: Transistors are categorized by Hence, a particular transistor may be described as silicon, surface-mount, BJT, NPN, low-power, high-frequency switch . Convenient mnemonic to remember the type of transistor (represented by an electrical symbol ) involves the direction of the arrow. For the BJT , on an n-p-n transistor symbol, the arrow will " N ot P oint i N" . On

2537-450: The idea of a field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947 was the first point-contact transistor . To acknowledge this accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain jointly received the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect". Shockley's team initially attempted to build

2596-418: The inventions of the junction transistor in 1948 and the MOSFET in 1959. The MOSFET is by far the most widely used transistor, in applications ranging from computers and electronics to communications technology such as smartphones . It has been considered the most important transistor, possibly the most important invention in electronics, and the device that enabled modern electronics. It has been

2655-613: The mechanical encoding from punched metal cards. The first prototype pocket transistor radio was shown by INTERMETALL, a company founded by Herbert Mataré in 1952, at the Internationale Funkausstellung Düsseldorf from August 29 to September 6, 1953. The first production-model pocket transistor radio was the Regency TR-1 , released in October 1954. Produced as a joint venture between

2714-927: The most numerously produced artificial objects in history, with more than 13 sextillion manufactured by 2018. Although several companies each produce over a billion individually packaged (known as discrete ) MOS transistors every year, the vast majority are produced in integrated circuits (also known as ICs , microchips, or simply chips ), along with diodes , resistors , capacitors and other electronic components , to produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to about 20 transistors, whereas an advanced microprocessor , as of 2022, may contain as many as 57 billion MOSFETs. Transistors are often organized into logic gates in microprocessors to perform computation. The transistor's low cost, flexibility and reliability have made it ubiquitous. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and machinery. It

2773-548: The potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly expand the knowledge of semiconductors . The term transistor was coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the term transresistance . According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch, Shockley proposed that Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed Lilienfeld's patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because

2832-405: The resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry, and the transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect. In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced resistance from

2891-409: The transistor so that it operates between its cut-off region in the off-state and the saturation region ( on ). This requires sufficient base drive current. As the transistor provides current gain, it facilitates the switching of a relatively large current in the collector by a much smaller current into the base terminal. The ratio of these currents varies depending on the type of transistor, and even for

2950-483: The transistor, the company rushed to get its "transistron" into production for amplified use in France's telephone network, filing his first transistor patent application on August 13, 1948. The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs' William Shockley, who applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26, 1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan Sparks successfully produced

3009-486: The triode. He filed identical patents in the United States in 1926 and 1928. However, he did not publish any research articles about his devices nor did his patents cite any specific examples of a working prototype. Because the production of high-quality semiconductor materials was still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would not have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such

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3068-408: The widespread adoption of transistor radios. Seven million TR-63s were sold worldwide by the mid-1960s. Sony's success with transistor radios led to transistors replacing vacuum tubes as the dominant electronic technology in the late 1950s. The first working silicon transistor was developed at Bell Labs on January 26, 1954, by Morris Tanenbaum . The first production commercial silicon transistor

3127-525: Was a few ten-thousandths of an inch thick. Indium electroplated into the depressions formed the collector and emitter. AT&T first used transistors in telecommunications equipment in the No. 4A Toll Crossbar Switching System in 1953, for selecting trunk circuits from routing information encoded on translator cards. Its predecessor, the Western Electric No. 3A phototransistor , read

3186-486: Was announced by Texas Instruments in May 1954. This was the work of Gordon Teal , an expert in growing crystals of high purity, who had previously worked at Bell Labs. The basic principle of the field-effect transistor (FET) was first proposed by physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld when he filed a patent for a device similar to MESFET in 1926, and for an insulated-gate field-effect transistor in 1928. The FET concept

3245-521: Was developed by Chrysler and Philco corporations and was announced in the April 28, 1955, edition of The Wall Street Journal . Chrysler made the Mopar model 914HR available as an option starting in fall 1955 for its new line of 1956 Chrysler and Imperial cars, which reached dealership showrooms on October 21, 1955. The Sony TR-63, released in 1957, was the first mass-produced transistor radio, leading to

3304-918: Was independently invented by physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux Westinghouse , a Westinghouse subsidiary in Paris . Mataré had previous experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium in the German radar effort during World War II . With this knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in 1947. By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-contacts, he produced consistent results using samples of germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain had accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs' scientists had already invented

3363-509: Was invented by John Bardeen and Walter Houser Brattain while working under William Shockley at Bell Laboratories in 1947, could also amplify, and replaced vacuum tubes. The first transistor hi-fi system was developed by engineers at GE and demonstrated at the University of Philadelphia in 1955. In terms of commercial production, The Fisher TR-1 was the first "all transistor" preamplifier , which became available mid-1956. In 1961,

3422-455: Was later also theorized by engineer Oskar Heil in the 1930s and by William Shockley in the 1940s. In 1945 JFET was patented by Heinrich Welker . Following Shockley's theoretical treatment on JFET in 1952, a working practical JFET was made in 1953 by George C. Dacey and Ian M. Ross . In 1948, Bardeen and Brattain patented the progenitor of MOSFET at Bell Labs, an insulated-gate FET (IGFET) with an inversion layer. Bardeen's patent, and

3481-521: Was made by Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze in 1967. In 1967, Bell Labs researchers Robert Kerwin, Donald Klein and John Sarace developed the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOS transistor, which Fairchild Semiconductor researchers Federico Faggin and Tom Klein used to develop the first silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit . A double-gate MOSFET was first demonstrated in 1984 by Electrotechnical Laboratory researchers Toshihiro Sekigawa and Yutaka Hayashi. The FinFET (fin field-effect transistor),

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