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50-523: For historical reasons it has always been referred to as a city , despite the small number of inhabitants, which as of 2020 total was 6,151. Vaxholm Municipality prefers to use the designation Vaxholms stad (City of Vaxholm) for its whole territory, including 64 islets in the Stockholm archipelago , a usage which is somewhat confusing. Vaxholm Fortress was originally constructed by Gustav Vasa in 1548 to defend Stockholm against shipborne attacks from

100-526: A hydrothermal reaction . The resulting mixture can increase the content of dissolved organic matter (DOM) and total organic carbon (TOC) in soil. Lignite (brown coal) may also be oxidized to produce humic substances, reversing the natural process of coal formation under anoxic and reducing conditions . This form of "mineral-derived fulvic acid" is widely used in China. This process also occurs in nature, producing leonardite . In economic geology ,

150-513: A pK 1 value around 4 for protonation of carboxyl groups and around 8 for protonation of phenolate groups in HA. Fulvic acids are more acidic than HA. There is considerable overall similarity among individual humic acids. For this reason, measured pK values for a given sample are average values relating to the constituent species. The other important characteristic is charge density . The more recent determinations of molecular weights of HS show that

200-486: A bit brownish water colour, especially in the inner parts. The salinity varies between freshwater and brackish water with poor salinity. In the outer parts of the archipelago, the salinity reaches around 0.6–0.7 per cent by weight, to be compared with at least 1.5 for beginning to taste salty and around 3.0 or more for proper oceanic water. Sea ice is regularly formed in the inner parts every winter. The archipelago extends from Stockholm roughly 60 kilometres (37 miles) to

250-677: A by-product from the sulfite pulping of wood, are valorized in the industrial fabrication of concrete where they serve as water reducer , or concrete superplasticizer , to decrease the water-cement ratio (w/c) of fresh concrete while preserving its workability. The w/c ratio of concrete is one of the main parameter controlling the mechanical strength of hardened concrete and its durability. The same wood pulping process can also be applied to obtain humus-like substances by hydrolysis and oxidation . A kind of artificial "lignohumate" can be directly produced from wood in this way. Agricultural litter can be turned into an artificial humic substance by

300-423: A proliferation of conflicting definitions. This lack of consensus makes it difficult to communicate scientific understanding of soil processes and properties accurately." The presence of humic acid in water intended for potable or industrial use can have a significant impact on the treatability of that water and the success of chemical disinfection processes. For instance, humic and fulvic acids can react with

350-412: A series of road bridges, and a bus service connects the town to Stockholm city. The Waxholmsbolaget and other ferry lines also provide boat services to central Stockholm and many of the other islands of the Stockholm archipelago , using a mixture of classic steamers and modern fast passenger ferries. The Vaxholmsleden  [ sv ] car ferry connects Vaxholm to the island of Rindö across

400-917: A single acid ; rather, it is a complex mixture of many different acids containing carboxyl and phenolate groups so that the mixture behaves functionally as a dibasic acid or, occasionally, as a tribasic acid . Commercial humic acid used to amend soil is manufactured using these same well established procedures. Humic acids can form complexes with ions that are commonly found in the environment creating humic colloids . A sequential chemical fractionation called Humeomics can be used to isolate more homogeneous humic fractions and determine their molecular structures by advanced spectroscopic and chromatographic methods. Substances identified in humic extracts and directly in soil include mono-, di-, and tri- hydroxycarboxylic acids , fatty acids , dicarboxylic acids , linear alcohols, phenolic acids , terpenoids , carbohydrates, and amino acids. This suggests humic molecules may form

450-504: A solution of potassium hydroxide and, after subsequent addition of an acid, obtained an amorphous dark precipitate (i.e., humic acid). Aquatic humic substances were isolated for the first time in 1806, from spring water by Jöns Jakob Berzelius . In terms of chemistry, FA, HA, and humin share more similarities than differences and represent a continuum of humic molecules. All of them are constructed from similar aromatic , polyaromatic , aliphatic , and carbohydrate units and contain

500-430: A supramolecular structures held together by non-covalent forces, such as van der Waals force , π-π , and CH-π bonds. Since the dawn of modern chemistry, humic substances are among the most studied among natural materials. Despite long study, their molecular structure remains debatable The traditional view has been that humic substances are hetero- poly-condensates, in varying associations with clay. A more recent view

550-767: Is Waxholmsbolaget owned by the Stockholm County government. Taxi boats are also available. In summer the archipelago bristles with private boats filled with people who often take advantage of Allemansrätt (or "everyman's right"), a law which gives anyone the right to go ashore or anchor on any ground not in the direct vicinity of buildings. Humic substance Humic substances ( HS ) are colored relatively recalcitrant organic compounds naturally formed during long-term decomposition and transformation of biomass residues. The color of humic substances varies from bright yellow to light or dark brown leading to black. The term comes from humus , which in turn comes from

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600-428: Is an important aspect of the biological role of humic acids in regulating bioavailability of metal ions. Criticism Decomposition products of dead plant materials form intimate associations with minerals, making it difficult to isolate and characterize soil organic constituents. 18th century soil chemists successfully used alkaline extraction to isolate a portion of the organic constituents in soil. This led to

650-986: Is cumbersome to measure their exact concentrations in the humic superstructure. For this reason, concentrations of humic acid are traditionally estimated out of concentrations of organic matter, typically from concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC) or dissolved organic carbon (DOC). Extraction procedures are bound to alter some of the chemical linkages present in the soil humic substances (mainly ester bonds in biopolyesters such as cutins and suberins). The humic extracts are composed of large numbers of different bio-organic molecules that have not yet been totally separated and identified. However, single classes of residual biomolecules have been identified by selective extractions and chemical fractionation, and are represented by alkanoic and hydroxy alkanoic acids, resins, waxes, lignin residues, sugars, and peptides. Organic matter soil amendments have been known by farmers to be beneficial to plant growth for longer than recorded history. However,

700-427: Is in the thousands  The average composition of HA and FA can be represented by model structures. The presence of carboxylate and phenolate groups gives the humic acids the ability to form complexes with ions such as Mg , Ca , Fe , and Fe creating humic colloids .. Many humic acids have two or more of these groups arranged so as to enable the formation of chelate complexes. The formation of (chelate) complexes

750-526: Is situated on Resarö in the Stockholm Archipelago. The shipping routes from the Baltic to Stockholm pass through the archipelago. There are three main entrances suitable for deep- draught craft, namely, those near Landsort , Sandhamn , and Söderarm . The Stockholm Archipelago is a joint valley landscape that has been shaped – and is still being shaped – by post-glacial rebound . It

800-412: Is soluble in water at neutral and alkaline pH, but insoluble at acidic pH < 2. Fulvic acid (FA) is soluble in water at any pH. Humin is not soluble in water at any pH. This definition of humic substances is largely operational. It is rooted in the history of soil science and, more precisely, in the tradition of alkaline extraction, which dates back to 1786, when Franz Karl Achard treated peat with

850-446: Is that relatively small molecules also play major a role. A typical humic substance is a mixture of many molecules, some of which are based on a motif of aromatic nuclei with phenolic and carboxylic substituents, linked together;  The functional groups that contribute most to surface charge and reactivity of humic substances are phenolic and carboxylic groups. Humic substances commonly behave as mixtures of dibasic acids, with

900-404: Is the large molecular complexity of the soil humeome that confers to humic matter its bioactivity in, its stabilty in ecosystems ,soil and its role as plant growth promoter (in particular plant roots). The academic definition of humic substances is under debate and some researchers argue against the traditional concepts of humification and seek to forgo alkali extract method and directly analyze

950-645: Is the largest archipelago in Sweden , and the second-largest archipelago in the Baltic Sea (the largest being the Archipelago Sea across the Baltic in Finland). Part of the archipelago has been designated as a Ramsar site since 1989. The water has a pH value of 7.0 (neutral) or slightly lower, to be compared with approximately 8.0 for seawater. Together with humic substances this sometimes causes

1000-500: Is the result of a alkaline extraction from solid sources of NOM the adsorption of HS on a resin. A newer view of humic substances is that they are not mostly high-molecular-weight macropolymers but rather represent a heterogeneous mixture of relatively small molecular components of the soil organic matter auto-assembled in supramolecular associations and are composed of a variety of compounds of biological origin and synthesized by abiotic and biotic reactions in soil. and surface waters It

1050-401: Is treated on a resin column to separate fulvic acid components from other acid soluble compounds. The fraction of NOM not extracted by 0.1 NaOH is humin. Humic acid plus fulvic acid is extracted from natural waters using a resin column after microfiltration and acidification to pH 2. The humic materials are eluted from the column with NaOH, and humic acid is precipitated at pH 1. After adjusting

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1100-573: The Kodjupet strait . The Kastellet ferry , an electrically powered cable ferry provides passenger access to Vaxholm Fortress on its islet in the middle of the Kodjupet. The following sports clubs are located in Vaxholm ;: [REDACTED] Media related to Vaxholm at Wikimedia Commons Stockholm archipelago The Stockholm Archipelago ( Swedish : Stockholms skärgård )

1150-569: The Latin word humus , meaning "soil, earth". Humic substances represent the major part of organic matter in soil , peat , coal , and sediments , and are important components of dissolved natural organic matter (NOM) in lakes (especially dystrophic lakes ), rivers, and sea water . Humic substances account for 50 – 90% of cation exchange capacity in soils. "Humic substances" is an umbrella term covering humic acid, fulvic acid and humin, which differ in solubility. By definition, humic acid (HA)

1200-572: The North Carolina State University College of Agriculture and Life Sciences showed that addition of humate to soil significantly increased root mass in creeping bentgrass turf. A 2018 study by scientists at the University of Alberta showed that humic acids can reduce prion infectivity in laboratory experiments, but that this effect may be uncertain in the environment due to minerals in the soil that buffer

1250-438: The Stockholm Archipelago. Among them are August Strindberg , Ture Nerman , Roland Svensson , Ernst Didring and Aleister Crowley . Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson from the group ABBA wrote most of their songs in a cabin located on the archipelago. Boating is an extremely popular activity with the sailing race Ornö runt (or Around the island of Ornö) being the largest in the archipelago. This annual race, organised by

1300-536: The Tyresö Boat Club, has taken place every year since 1973. It is open to anyone with a sailing boat but requires registration. There are different entry classes, with the family class being the least competitive. In the winter skaters make excursions over the ice. Visiting the larger islands in the archipelago is easy all year round, but during winter period the routes depend on the ice conditions. Several companies have regular routes. The largest of these

1350-475: The better-known islands are Dalarö , Finnhamn , Nässlingen  [ sv ] , Grinda , Husarö , Ingarö , Ljusterö , Möja , Nämdö  [ sv ] , Rödlöga , Tynningö , Utö , Svartsö and Värmdö . The biggest towns of the archipelago, apart from Stockholm, are Nynäshamn , Vaxholm and Norrtälje . The village of Ytterby , famous among chemists for naming no fewer than four chemical elements ( erbium , terbium , ytterbium and yttrium ),

1400-446: The chemicals used in the chlorination process to form disinfection byproducts such as dihaloacetonitriles, which are toxic to humans. Accurate methods of establishing humic acid concentrations are therefore essential in maintaining water supplies, especially from upland peaty catchments in temperate climates. As a lot of different bio-organic molecules in very diverse physical associations are mixed together in natural environments, it

1450-417: The chemistry and function of the organic matter have been a subject of controversy since humans began postulating about it in the 18th century. Until the time of Liebig , it was supposed that humus was used directly by plants, but, after Liebig showed that plant growth depends upon inorganic compounds, many soil scientists held the view that organic matter was useful for fertility only as it was broken down with

1500-417: The definition of humic substances like humic and fulvic acids relies on their separation through these methods, it raises the question of whether the distinction between these compounds accurately reflects the natural state of organic matter in soil. Despite these concerns, the 'humification' theory persists in the field and in even textbooks, and attempts to redefine 'humic substances' in soil have resulted in

1550-514: The east. In a north–south direction, it mainly follows the coastline of the Södermanland and Uppland provinces, reaching roughly from Öja island, south of Nynäshamn , to Väddö , north of Norrtälje . It is separated from Åland by a stretch of water named South Kvarken . A separate group of islands lies further north, near the town of Öregrund . Between Arholma and Landsort there are approximately 24,000 islands and islets . Some of

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1600-453: The east. The fortress lies in the middle of the Kodjupet strait , one of two main routes into Stockholm from the open sea. The town of Vaxholm, which lies adjacent to the fortress but on the western side of the Kodjupet strait, was established in 1558, when King Gustav Vasa bought some farms from Count Per Brahe the Elder . It later received rights as a merchant town ( köping ) and in 1652

1650-437: The effect. Humans can affect the production of humic substances via a variety of ways: by making use of natural processes by composting lignin or adding biochar (see soil rehabilitation ), or by industrial synthesis of artificial humic substances from organic feedstocks directly. These artificial substances may be similarly divided into artificial humic acid (A-HA) and artificial fulvic acid (A-FA). Lignosulfonates ,

1700-407: The extracts into HA and FA. The International Humic Substances Society advocates the use of standard laboratory methods for preparation of humic and fulvic acids. Humic substances are extracted from soil and other solid sources using 0.1 M NaOH, under and a nitrogen atmosphere, to prevent abiotic oxidation of some of the components of HS. The HA is then precipitated at pH 1, and the soluble fraction

1750-421: The idea that plants may be able to absorb the soluble forms of humus; this may in fact be an essential process for the uptake of otherwise insoluble iron oxides. A study on the effects of humic acid on plant growth was conducted at Ohio State University which said in part "humic acids increased plant growth" and that there were "relatively large responses at low application rates". A 1998 study by scientists at

1800-448: The lab are resistant to further biodegradation. Their structure, elemental composition and content of functional groups of a given sample depend on the water or soil source and on the specific procedures and conditions of extraction. Nevertheless, the average properties of lab extractes HS from different sources are remarkably similar. Historically, scientists have used variations of similar methods for extracting HS from NOM and separation

1850-470: The long distances to their permanent houses in the inner archipelago. The combined farming and fishing culture lasted until around 1950–1955 when the younger generation, born during and directly after the war, started to leave the archipelago and look for jobs in the cities on the mainland. Today most of the small farms on the islands are closed and the fishing industry has almost disappeared. Many poets, authors and artists have been influenced and fascinated by

1900-547: The molecular weights are not as great as once thought.  Reported  number average molecular weights of soil HA are < 6000 but they are highly poly disperse with some components with much larger measure molecular weights and much lower.  Measured number average molecular weights of aquatic HS with HA <= 1700 and FA< 900.  The aquatic HA and FA are also highly poly disperse.  The number of individually distinct components in HS, as measured by mass spectroscopy

1950-459: The north-west of the town, carrying county road 274  [ sv ] on its way to the mainland. Until 2020, the urban area of Vaxholm, as defined by Statistics Sweden , was entirely contained within the island of Vaxön . However in that year, the urban area was redefined to include the adjacent island of Kullö . Vaxholm is situated on an island, but is linked to the Swedish mainland by

2000-722: The pH to 2 fulvic acid is separated from other acid soluble compounds, using a resin column as with solid phase sources. An analytical method for quantifying humic acid and fulvic acid in commercial ores and humic products, has been developed based on the IHSS humic acid and fulvic acid preparation methods. Scientists associated with the IHSS have also isolated the entire NOM from black water streams using reverse osmosis  The retentate from this process contains both humic and fulvic acids, predominately humic acid. The NOM from hard water streams has been isolated using  reverse osmosis and electrodialysis in tandem. Extracted humic acid not

2050-410: The preservation of the nature and culture of the archipelago, owns some 15% of its total area. The inhabitants in the archipelago, from around the mid-1400s to the end of the second world war , were combined farmers and fishermen. Spring and autumn fishing was quite intensive in the outer archipelago from 1450 until the mid-1800s, and many fishermen lived for long periods in the outer islands because of

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2100-405: The release of its constituent nutrient elements into inorganic forms. At the present time, soil scientists hold a more holistic view and at least recognize that humus influences soil fertility through its effect on the water-holding capacity of the soil. Also, since plants have been shown to absorb and translocate the complex organic molecules of systemic insecticides, they can no longer discredit

2150-571: The same functional groups (mainly carboxylic , phenolic , and ester groups), albeit in varying proportions. Water solubility of humic substances is primarily governed by interplay of two factors: the amount of ionizable functional groups and (mainly carboxylic) and molecular weight (MW). In general, fulvic acid has a higher amount of carboxylic groups and lower average molecular weight than does humic acid. Measured average molecular weights vary with source, however, molecular weight distributions of HA and FA significantly overlap. Age and origin of

2200-491: The soil, The formation of HS in nature is one of the least understood aspects of humus chemistry and one of the most intriguing. Historically, there have been three main theories to explain it: the lignin theory of Waksman (1932), the polyphenol theory, and the sugar-amine condensation theory of Maillard (1911). Humic substances are formed by the microbial degradation of dead biota matter , such as lignin , cellulose. ligno-cellulose and charcoal . Humic substances in

2250-409: The source material determine the chemical structure of humic substances. In general, humic substances derived from soil and peat (which takes hundreds to thousands of years to form) have higher molecular weight, higher amounts of O and N, more carbohydrate units, and fewer polyaromatic units than humic substances derived from coal and leonardite (which takes millions of years to form). Isolation id HS

2300-743: The term humate refers to geological materials, such as weathered coal beds (leonardite), mudrock , or pore material in sandstones , that are rich in humic acids. Humate has been mined from the Fruitland Formation of New Mexico for use as a soil amendment since the 1970s, with nearly 60,000 metric tons produced by 2016. Humate deposits may also play an important role in the genesis of uranium ore bodies. The heavy-metal binding abilities of humic acids have been exploited to develop remediation technologies for removing lead from waste water. To this end, Yurishcheva et al. coated magnetic nanoparticles with humic acids. After capturing lead ions,

2350-417: The theory that a 'humification' process created distinct 'humic substances' like 'humic acid', 'fulvic acid', and 'humin'. However, modern chemical analysis methods applied to unprocessed mineral soil have not directly observed large humic molecules. This suggests that the extraction and fractionation techniques used to isolate humic substances alter the original chemical composition of the organic matter. Since

2400-626: Was granted the Royal Charter . The designated coat of arms reminds of the fortifications as well as shipping industry. In 1849, the Djurgårdens Ångbåts-Aktie-Bolag introduced a steamboat service from Stockholm to Vaxholm. Through a number of acquisitions and mergers, this company became that known today as Waxholmsbolaget . As a consequence and in the 1860s, Vaxholm became a popular resort town, especially for bathers, and many wooden summer houses were built by people from Stockholm . It

2450-466: Was not until 1912 that houses were allowed to be built from materials other than wood, giving the town a distinctive appearance. In 1926 the town got its first fixed land connection via the single-lane Pålsundsbron bridge that links to the Bogesundslandet peninsular to the south of the town. This was followed in 1965 by the wider Vaxholmsbron bridge that links to the island of Kullö to

2500-498: Was not until the Viking Age that the archipelago began to assume its present-day contours. The islands rise by about three millimeters each year. In 1719 the archipelago had an estimated population of 2,900, consisting mostly of fishermen . Today the archipelago is a popular holiday destination with some 50,000 holiday cottages (owned mainly by Stockholmers). The Stockholm Archipelago Foundation  [ sv ] , dedicated to

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