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65-461: The cave is located roughly 20 km (12 mi) west of the city of Varaždin and 10 km (6.2 mi) north of Ivanec . It is estimated that Neanderthals used the cave 40,000 years ago; approximately 8000 years before modern humans lived in that part of Europe. The hominid specimens at level 3G are regarded as unquestionably Neanderthal in overall morphology but exhibit a number of traits that sit closer to anatomically modern Europeans than to

130-601: A 16 MW geothermal power plant near the towns of Lunjkovec and Kutnjak. Apart from A4 highway that runs between Zagreb and Goričan (Hungarian border), there are three state roads that reach the area of Varaždin: D2 , D3 and D35 . The town is fully encircled by the Varaždin bypass . Varaždin is also a hub for bus transportation company "AP Varaždin" which offers significant number of county (local) , inter-county and inter-city services, also offering international lines. Allele An allele , or allelomorph ,

195-423: A Hungarian loanword from város , meaning city . The total population of the city is 46,946 and it includes the following settlements: The administrative sections of Varaždin are local committees ( mjesni odbori ). These are: The first written reference to Varaždin, whose historical name is Garestin, was on 20 August 1181, when King Béla III mentioned the nearby thermal springs ( Varaždinske Toplice ) in

260-428: A fire hazard compounded by that the people hardly ever cleaned them. In 1755, Varaždin had only one chimneysweeper, not even paid on a regular basis. The presence of the country's gouvernment in town somewhat changed the attitude towards fire. For example, upon another fire in 1769, there were records of efficiency in putting out the fire. Members of the town's administration showing up at fire sight were to take charge of

325-431: A great deal of genetic variation is hidden in the form of alleles that do not produce obvious phenotypic differences. Wild type alleles are often denoted by a superscript plus sign ( i.e. , p for an allele p ). A population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles ( polymorphism ) present, or

390-585: A legal document. Varaždin was declared a free royal borough in 1209 by the Hungarian King Andrew II . The town became the economic and military centre of northern Croatia. Due to Ottoman raids , the town was structured defensively around the old fortress , and acquired the shape of a typical medieval Wasserburg. In the early 13th century, the Knights Hospitaller ( Croatian : Ivanovci ) came to Varaždin, where they built

455-436: A low coverage genome from an undiagnosed bone fragment, Vindija 87 (directly dated to around 47,000 BP) and concluded that the fragment most likely came from the same individual as Vindija 33.19 . Devièse et al. (2017) applied collagen peptide mass fingerprinting , and Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS) , to sort through several unidentified fossil fragments recovered from Vindija Cave. They successfully identified

520-403: A new Neanderthal fossil fragment, Vindija *28 . Most of the fossil fragments that were identifiable by ZooMS were classified as belonging to Ursus . This was confirmed by Slon et al. (2017) who tested a soil sample from Vindija for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Most of the classifiable mtDNA was ascribed to Ursus , coming predominately from Ursus ingressus . Hajdinjak et al. (2018) found that

585-538: A new technique using AMS ultrafiltration based on the extraction of hydroxyproline to directly date several samples from Vindija Cave. Their direct AMS dating results show that the Neanderthal finds at Vindija are older than 44,000 BP. Since this is earlier than the arrival of the first modern humans to the region, the Vindija Neanderthals most likely did not intermix with modern humans. In 2010,

650-506: A process termed transgenerational epigenetic inheritance . The term epiallele is used to distinguish these heritable marks from traditional alleles, which are defined by nucleotide sequence . A specific class of epiallele, the metastable epialleles , has been discovered in mice and in humans which is characterized by stochastic (probabilistic) establishment of epigenetic state that can be mitotically inherited. The term "idiomorph", from Greek 'morphos' (form) and 'idio' (singular, unique),

715-749: A single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include albinism , cystic fibrosis , galactosemia , phenylketonuria (PKU), and Tay–Sachs disease . Other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy (that is, they are hemizygous ), they are more frequent in males than in females. Examples include red–green color blindness and fragile X syndrome . Other disorders, such as Huntington's disease , occur when an individual inherits only one dominant allele. While heritable traits are typically studied in terms of genetic alleles, epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation can be inherited at specific genomic regions in certain species,

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780-433: A strong wind, crossed the town walls and spread all over town. It destroyed Varaždin churches (parish church, Jesuit church and Franciscan church), spared only eight homes and new stables belonging to Varaždin stronghold's military commander; it also destroyed several towers from the town walls, albeit sparing the one used as main armoury - a lucky escape, as that one held the gunpowder magazine; thus sparing some lives. Beside

845-549: A votive chapel after the 1665 fire (catholic patron saint St. Florian was believed to protect from fires, thus has many dedicated chapels and churches - such as that in Koprivnica , first mentioned in 1680, or in Križevci after their fire in 1735). Fires in the 18th century include that of 1745, set up by soldiers spiteful of their lodgers, which destroyed a number of homes and a brewery. In 1748 another fire destroyed much of

910-424: Is Gregor Mendel 's discovery that the white and purple flower colors in pea plants were the result of a single gene with two alleles. Nearly all multicellular organisms have two sets of chromosomes at some point in their biological life cycle ; that is, they are diploid . For a given locus, if the two chromosomes contain the same allele, they, and the organism, are homozygous with respect to that allele. If

975-577: Is a city in Northern Croatia , 81 km (50 mi) north of Zagreb . The total population is 46,946, with 38,839 in the city settlement itself (2011). The city is best known for its baroque buildings, music, textile, food and IT industry. In Hungarian the town is known as Varasd , in Latin as Varasdinum and in German as Warasdin . The name Varaždin traces its origin to varoš ,

1040-490: Is a short form of "allelomorph" ("other form", a word coined by British geneticists William Bateson and Edith Rebecca Saunders ) in the 1900s, which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected in different phenotypes and identified to cause the differences between them. It derives from the Greek prefix ἀλληλο-, allelo- , meaning "mutual", "reciprocal", or "each other", which itself

1105-545: Is a variant of the sequence of nucleotides at a particular location, or locus , on a DNA molecule. Alleles can differ at a single position through single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP), but they can also have insertions and deletions of up to several thousand base pairs . Most alleles observed result in little or no change in the function of the gene product it codes for. However, sometimes different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits , such as different pigmentation . A notable example of this

1170-624: Is also the beginning of fires being recorded; starting with a fire in Varaždin in 1558, although no details are given. We know more about the great fire of May 27, 1582, that had such dire effects that the Varaždin population counted time as "prior" and "after the Great fire". The losses include the parish church, the Franciscan church and a friary (subsequently the Franciscans left Varaždin),

1235-471: Is first mentioned in the 12th century and it is believed to be the center of Varaždin county life. The keep underwent numerous ownership changes and reconstructions over the centuries. The Old Town was featured on the now defunct 5 Kuna bill. The cemetery dates back to 1773 and it was long time an ordinary place until 1905, when Herman Haller had an idea to make it more park-like with large trees and alleys for citizens to stroll through. The reconstruction of

1300-778: Is located near the Drava River, at 46°18′43″N 16°21′40″E  /  46.312°N 16.361°E  / 46.312; 16.361 . Varaždin has a warm-summer humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) bordering on a maritime climate ( Cfb ). Varaždin is one of the few Croatian cities whose industry did not directly suffer from the war in 1991. Besides textile giant Varteks (Varaždin Textile), it also has nationally important food ( Vindija ), metal, and construction industries. The Information Technology and financial and banking sector as are well developed. Further economic development has been encouraged with

1365-480: Is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus. Hence an individual with "Type A" blood may be an AO heterozygote, an AA homozygote, or an AA heterozygote with two different "A" alleles.) The frequency of alleles in a diploid population can be used to predict

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1430-452: Is related to the Greek adjective ἄλλος, allos (cognate with Latin alius ), meaning "other". In many cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at a locus can be described as dominant or recessive , according to which of the two homozygous phenotypes the heterozygote most resembles. Where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the homozygotes, the allele expressed

1495-439: Is the one that leads to the "dominant" phenotype, and the other allele is said to be "recessive". The degree and pattern of dominance varies among loci. This type of interaction was first formally-described by Gregor Mendel . However, many traits defy this simple categorization and the phenotypes are modelled by co-dominance and polygenic inheritance . The term " wild type " allele is sometimes used to describe an allele that

1560-403: Is thought to contribute to the typical phenotypic character as seen in "wild" populations of organisms, such as fruit flies ( Drosophila melanogaster ). Such a "wild type" allele was historically regarded as leading to a dominant (overpowering – always expressed), common, and normal phenotype, in contrast to " mutant " alleles that lead to recessive, rare, and frequently deleterious phenotypes. It

1625-776: The Caucasus . Modern humans share more alleles with Vindija 33.19 and Mezmaiskaya 1 than with the Altai Neanderthal . With the addition of the Vindija 33.19 genome, researchers revised upwards the percentage of human DNA in non-Africans introgressed from Neanderthals and were able to identify additional phenotypic variants in humans that are derived from Neanderthals. Vara%C5%BEdin Varaždin ( pronounced [ˈʋâraʒdiːn] or [ʋaˈrǎʒdin] ; Hungarian : Varasd , also known by alternative names )

1690-758: The Reformation and the Counter-Reformation had a great influence on Varaždin. With the arrival of the Jesuits , the school ( gymnasium ) and the Jesuit house were founded, and churches and other buildings were built in the Baroque style. In the 18th century Varaždin was the seat of many Croatian noblemen, and in 1756 it became the Croatian administrative centre. The fire of 1776 destroyed some 80% of

1755-566: The Ustaše , becoming the first city in Croatia to earn this dubious distinction. The former village of Biškupec , whose population was tracked as a separate settlement between 1857 and 1948, when it reached 635 inhabitants, was integrated into the city of Varaždin since the 1953 census. In the Croatian War of Independence , 1991, Varaždin suffered directly for only for a few days, because

1820-432: The 113 buildings held within its walls, 70 were entirely destroyed and 11 partially destroyed; the northern suburb had held 256 buildings, of which 111 were entirely destroyed; and of the 245 homes in the southern suburb, 135 were destroyed : altogether, from the total of 614 homes, 316 were destroyed - more than half. Most of the nobility fled the town, and with it the country's government so recently installed there. But

1885-606: The 14th century, and in the following century the rounded towers, typical of Gothic architecture in Croatia, were added. Today it houses the Town Museum . The fortress was depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 kuna banknote, issued in 1993 and 2001. The Old and Contemporary Masters Gallery is located in the Sermage Palace, built in the rococo style in 1750. In 1523, Margrave Georg of Brandenburg built

1950-738: The 17th and 18th centuries saw Varaždin's economy and culture expand ; within that period it grew from around 3,000 inhabitants around the year 1600 to around 5,500 inhabitants by the end of the 18th century. In 1756 or 1766, the Ban Ferenc Nádasdy chose Varaždin as his official residence, and Varaždin became the capital of all of Croatia. It hosted the Croatian Sabor and the Royal Croatian Council founded by Empress Maria Theresa . The April 1776 fire put an end to that presence in town. The periods of

2015-582: The Neanderthals at Vindija might have lived concurrently with modern humans. However, later dating methods using more advanced techniques revealed that these earlier dating results were erroneous. The erroneous dates were due to contamination by modern carbon, as minute amounts of modern contamination may result in large errors for very old samples. In 2017, researchers from the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit applied

Vindija Cave - Misplaced Pages Continue

2080-507: The Vindija Neanderthals were in transition from the classic robust form to a more gracile one. The Neanderthal remains at Vindija were found in a Mousterian context; some of the remains occurred in a level with some mixed Aurignacian artefacts. Several of the Neanderthal samples from Vindija also yielded surprisingly late dates when directly dated , yielding dates as late as 28,000–29,000 BP . This led to suggestions that Neanderthals might have survived longer than previously thought and that

2145-502: The alleles are different, they, and the organism, are heterozygous with respect to those alleles. Popular definitions of 'allele' typically refer only to different alleles within genes. For example, the ABO blood grouping is controlled by the ABO gene , which has six common alleles (variants). In population genetics , nearly every living human's phenotype for the ABO gene is some combination of just these six alleles. The word "allele"

2210-484: The alternative allele. If the first allele is dominant to the second then the fraction of the population that will show the dominant phenotype is p + 2 pq , and the fraction with the recessive phenotype is q . With three alleles: In the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the expression: A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for

2275-488: The cemetery was done between 1905 and 1947, and its current landscape and architecture dates from these works, It is now a protected cultural and natural park. In 2023 Varaždin is the first croatian city to become a UNESCO Creative City in the field of music. The total area is 59.45 km (22.95 sq mi) (2001). The urban city settlement is 34.22 km (13.21 sq mi). The centre of Varaždin County

2340-592: The chapels of St. Vid, Michael and Holy Trinity, the homes of the local tollhouse clerks and customs officers . The stronghold was spared but the fire jumped the city walls and ravaged the suburbs close to the river Drava. The citizens asked the king for help and were granted state tax exoneration for the following six years by the Hungarian royal chamber, relieved from tax duty for one year and were assigned free serf labor. Austrian archduke Ernest wrote to Varaždin County officials on July 9, 1582 to provide free lumber for

2405-629: The church and a monastery. Mid 13th century, the church of St. John belonging to the Hospitallers was taken over by Franciscans , who extended it over several centuries, eventually replacing the medieval structures with early baroque . At the end of the 14th century, Varaždin fortress passed to the hands of the Counts of Celje . Over the following centuries Varaždin had several owners, the most influential being Beatrice Frankopan (1480–1510), wife of Margrave Georg of Brandenburg-Ansbach , who built

2470-605: The citizens who had lost their homes in the fire. That fire prompted authorities, not only in Varaždin but also in other towns, to set up watch posts with guards on lookout for possible fire. A fire on April 29, 1586, burned down a number of buildings. The following year, 1587, saw two fires: one on May 10 that burned 23 homes in the Royal street, and one on December 26 that burned only one home. At that time, Varaždin, contrary to some other towns, did not have any organized fire-fighting service. The next fire recorded, in 1592, brings in

2535-428: The commoners (primarily merchants and artisans) remained - and turned their town into one huge building site: by 1780 the number of homes equaled that prior to the fire. After that fire, the town authorities decreed a public prohibition of wooden houses inside the town walls; even more specifically, brickmade chimneys became compulsory. The authorities ensured that adequate building materials were available. A committee

2600-455: The creation of a free investment zone. Today Varaždin is a tourist destination for the summer holidays. The city has numerous areas of interests ranging from cultural areas (reflected by many museums, galleries and theaters in the area), shopping centers in the downtown core, various sports and recreation facilities, also a rich history in cuisine. The close of the tourist season is marked by two annual festivals. The annual ŠpancirFest begins at

2665-528: The end of August and ends in September (lasts for 10 days). At this time the city welcomes artists, street performers, musicians and vendors for what is called "the street walking festival". The city also hosts the Varaždin Baroque Evenings festival, first held in 1971. The festival honours baroque music and culture, both of which hold a special place in Varaždin's identity. Varaždin is also

Vindija Cave - Misplaced Pages Continue

2730-467: The first draft sequence of the Neanderthal genome was reconstructed primarily from three low coverage genomes from Vindija Cave, taken from Vindija 33.16 , Vindija 33.25 and Vindija 33.26 . Prüfer et al. (2017) sequenced a high coverage genome from Vindija 33.19 . At around 30-fold coverage, Vindija 33.19 is the second high coverage Neanderthal genome to be sequenced, after the Altai Neanderthal from Denisova Cave . In 2018, researchers sequenced

2795-403: The frequencies of the corresponding genotypes (see Hardy–Weinberg principle ). For a simple model, with two alleles; where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the alternative allele, which necessarily sum to unity. Then, p is the fraction of the population homozygous for the first allele, 2 pq is the fraction of heterozygotes, and q is the fraction homozygous for

2860-472: The host of the Radar Festival , which hosts concerts at the end of summer. It has hosted artists like Bob Dylan , Carlos Santana , The Animals , Manic Street Preachers , Solomon Burke and others. In October 2023, the state-owned energy company, Bukotermal , announced the discovery of an underground lake of superheated water at an average 142 °C (288 °F), with the potential to support

2925-555: The huge Yugoslav People's Army base quickly surrendered after the Siege of Varaždin Barracks , resulting in a minimal number of casualties, and providing weapons (worth $ 600m) for the Croatian army. Varaždin represents the best preserved and richest urban complex in continental Croatia. It aims for a Unesco listing as a World Heritage Site . The Old Town (fortress) is an example of medieval defensive buildings. Construction began in

2990-522: The individuals Vindija 33.16 , Vindija 33.25 , Vindija 33.26 and Vindija 33.19 , were genetically closest to each other than any other Neanderthal individuals on record. DNA analysis revealed that Vindija 87 , and thus most likely Vindija 33.19 , was female. The Vindija Neanderthals were also found to be genetically closer to other late European Neanderthals, to the exclusion of the Mezmaiskaya Neanderthals from Mezmaiskaya cave in

3055-417: The inner town buildings, the entire suburb outside the upper gates was also destroyed in the fire, from the east all the way to the stronghold's toll gates; this included part of the main street and Vidovski konec street, toward Biškupec village (about 3 km south of Varaždin ); the next day the fire caught Vidovski konec and burned all its buildings down. St. Florian's chapel was built in Varaždin in 1669, as

3120-516: The manufacture of silk and bricks. The theatre and the music school were founded. From the second half of 19th century, fire fighting was organized and specialized fire-fighting societies were established; the very first fire fighting volunteers in Croato-Slavonnian Kingdom was organized in Varaždin in 1864. In the 20th century Varaždin developed into the industrial centre of northwestern Croatia. The textile manufacturer Tivar

3185-479: The operation, duties were assigned to firefighters and their performance monitored. A record from 1771 mentions 32 buildings and many stables and barns destroyed by fire. That year, the Hungarian Chamber representative proposed to the town authorities to help those who lost homes in fire rebuild in bricks and setting up stoves outside their houses - not only in Varaždin town center, but also further in

3250-791: The proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele is a gene variant that lacks the gene's normal function because it either is not expressed, or the expressed protein is inactive. For example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in humans, classical genetics recognizes three alleles, I , I , and i, which determine compatibility of blood transfusions . Any individual has one of six possible genotypes (I I , I i, I I , I i, I I , and ii) which produce one of four possible phenotypes : "Type A" (produced by I I homozygous and I i heterozygous genotypes), "Type B" (produced by I I homozygous and I i heterozygous genotypes), "Type AB" produced by I I heterozygous genotype, and "Type O" produced by ii homozygous genotype. (It

3315-526: The southern suburbs, including 119 homes and several hundred stables and barns. In 1767, the Croatian Royal Council - newly installed in town - gave order to the Varaždin town authorities to uphold restriction on drying flax and hemp fiber on house stoves, on smoking around barns and stables, and on replacing wooden chimneys by brick-built ones, the latter an expensive task: 1768 records show that that concerned most of Varaždin's chimneys,

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3380-421: The town and damaged many of the remaining buildings, did not deter the town's growth, as better buildings replaced the "ugly town district". Sigismund Trautmanstorf ( de ) , a member of Austria's nobility, reports a fire on May 1st, 1648, fuelled by high wind, that destroyed more than a half the town within its walls - several hundred of houses disappeared. The town magistrate asked King Ferdinand III to relieve

3445-465: The town from Royal chamber taxes, due to the current devastation; the king granted that request and on 27 October 1649 he pardoned the town from paying overdue taxes of 500 Hungarian forint , with the specific reason of «half of Varaždin perishing in the fire of 1 May 1648». On Easter Monday of March 27, 1665, an extremely large fire started in Brodovski konec suburb (E-N-E of Varaždin ) and, due to

3510-417: The town hall in late baroque style, with the Varaždin coat of arms at the foot of the tower, and it has continued in its function until the present day. There is a guard-changing ceremony every Saturday. Varaždin's Cathedral, a former Jesuit church, was built in 1647, and is distinguished by its baroque entrance, eighteenth-century altar, and paintings. There are many baroque and rococo palaces and houses in

3575-462: The town hall; her successor was Baron Ivan Ungnad (1493–1564), who reinforced the existing fortification. At the end of the 16th century Count Thomas Erdődy became its owner, assuming the hereditary position of Varaždin prefects (župan), and the fortress remained in the ownership of the Erdődy family until 1925. The town was the seat of Slavonnian Military Border in late 16th century. 16th century

3640-434: The town outskirts. Thus in 1774, the Hungarian chamber demanded from Varaždin town authorities that burned-down homes of Sračinec village be replaced with raw brick buildings. Morever, in 1767 the town owned only one water-sprinkling device with a two- to three bucket capacity; in 1772 Queen Maria Theresa issued an ordnance listing necessary equipment that the town's authorities had to purchase for fire-fighting, and by 1773,

3705-483: The town owned most of this equipment. In 1771, Varaždin authorities made fire-fighting compulsory for all citizens. But this did not spare the town from its next big fire, that of April 25-26, 1776. It started in the Sračinec suburb (west of Varaždin ) and, again due to strong wind - and the carelessness of a merchant who had stashed gunpowder in his house, which exploded and added fuel to the fire -, spread to Varaždin. Of

3770-502: The town protocol the description of «pitiful and grieving town of Varaždin»; among the damages are noted that of several public buildings, including the town hall and St. Nicholas church. Another fire in 1599 destroyed 66 buildings in and around the street of St.Vid. 1599 also sees the town officials take the first fire fighting measures. This ordnance seems to have had some effect, as the next recorded fire dates from mid-17th century. The great fire of 1646, that destroyed more than half

3835-560: The town, resulting in the administrative institutions moving back to Zagreb . Varaždin was the seat of Varaždin County of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within the Austro-Hungarian monarchy , ruled by the Kingdom of Hungary after the compromise of 1867 . The Hungarian stamp, issued in 1881 shows both names. By the 19th century Varaždin had been completely rebuilt and expanded, with flourishing crafts and trade, and later

3900-573: The town. Worth particular mention is Varaždin's Croatian National Theatre, built in 1873 and designed by the Viennese architects Herman Helmer and Ferdinand Fellner . A baroque music festival has been held annually in Varaždin since 1971, and attracts some of the finest musicians and their fans from Croatia and the world. Recommended to visitors is also the historical street festival Špancir fest every August. The city features its old city guard, named Purgari, in various city ceremonies as well as

3965-512: The traditional Neanderthal. These include a thinner and less projecting brow ridge , reduced facial size, and narrower front teeth. Though some have put these differences down to the small size of the Vindija individuals, a study conducted in 1995 established that the Vindija Neanderthals, though small, were of comparable size to more morphologically classic Neanderthals such as La Ferrassie 2 , Shanidar 1 and 4 , and Tabun 1 . More likely,

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4030-462: The weekly ceremony of the 'change of the guards' in front of the city hall. Additionally, Varaždin police officers patrol on bicycles in the warmer months. The Old Town keep is one of the biggest monuments in the city of Varaždin and one of its biggest tourist attractions. It is located in the north-western section of the city core. Today the keep houses the Varaždin City Museum. The keep

4095-489: Was formerly thought that most individuals were homozygous for the "wild type" allele at most gene loci, and that any alternative "mutant" allele was found in homozygous form in a small minority of "affected" individuals, often as genetic diseases , and more frequently in heterozygous form in " carriers " for the mutant allele. It is now appreciated that most or all gene loci are highly polymorphic, with multiple alleles, whose frequencies vary from population to population, and that

4160-473: Was founded in 1918. A silk factory was started in 1929, the one which would later start the sportswear brand YASSA . Under the leadership of professor Krešimir Filić , the town developed a city library, a city museum, a gallery, reopened its music school, and had a mountaineering society started. Soon after the start of World War II in Yugoslavia , on 12 July 1941, Varaždin was declared Judenfrei by

4225-486: Was set up to inspect all chimneys and list down those which were fire hazards. Incentives were set up too, rewarding those citizens who were first to help in fire fighting; in the 18th century, there were public citations for citizens who showed up at fires with fire-fighting sprinkling equipment, as well as those who arrived on site with large amounts of water to put out fire. Later, fire insurance policies were set up with insurance companies. In spite of all those set-backs,

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