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43-903: Most Tutelo speakers migrated north to escape warfare. They traveled through North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and New York. In 1753, the Tutelo had joined the Iroquois Confederacy under the sponsorship of the Cayuga . They finally settled in Ontario after the American Revolutionary War at what is now known as Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation . Nikonha , the last fluent speaker in Tutelo country, died in 1871 at age 106. The year before, he had managed to impart about 100 words of vocabulary to

86-743: A federally recognized tribe. On November 11, 1794, the (New York) Cayuga Nation (along with the other Haudenosaunee nations) signed the Pickering Treaty with the United States, by which they ceded much of their lands in New York to the United States, forced to do so as allies of the defeated British. It was the second treaty the United States entered into. It recognized the rights of the Haudenosaunee as sovereign nations. The Pickering Treaty remains an operating legal document;

129-468: A house fire shortly before Mithun's visit in 1982. The last native speaker, Albert Green, died sometime after that. Hale published a brief grammar and vocabulary in 1883 and confirmed the language as Siouan through comparisons with Dakota and Hidatsa . His excitement was considerable to find an ancient Dakotan language, which was once widespread among inland tribes in Virginia, to have been preserved on

172-677: A house) was signed over to the Cayuga nation by United States citizens who had purchased and developed the 70-acre (280,000 m ) farm in Aurora, New York . This is the first property which the Cayuga Nation has owned since after being forced to cede its lands after the Revolutionary War. It is the first time they have lived within the borders of their ancestral homeland in more than 200 years. The Cayuga continue to debate having

215-431: A predominantly Iroquoian-speaking reserve in Ontario. Previously, the only recorded information on the language had been a short list of words and phrases collected by Lieutenant John Fontaine at Fort Christanna in 1716, and a few assorted terms recorded by colonial sources, such as John Lederer , Abraham Wood , Hugh Jones, and William Byrd II . Hale noted the testimony of colonial historian Robert Beverley, Jr. that

258-473: A very small consonant inventory. Allophonic variations that occur in Cayuga: Most words have accented vowels, resulting in a higher pitch. Where the stress is placed is dependent on the "position of the word in the phrase." The default location for stress for nouns is on final vowel. "In words that are at the end of a phrase, accent falls on the 2nd last vowel, the 3rd last vowel, or occasionally, on

301-491: A whispered [ j ] , and [ o ] and [ õ ] devoiced as [o̥, õ̥] , sound like a whispered [ w ] . Furthermore, the [ ã ] in [ẽhãʔ] and [õhã] is nasalized because of [ ẽ ] and [ õ ] . The consonant before the nasalized vowel becomes voiceless. Also, odd-numbered vowels followed by [ h ] are devoiced, while even-numbered vowels followed by [ h ] are not. Like other Iroquoian languages, Cayuga has

344-609: Is a Northern Iroquoian language of the Iroquois Proper (also known as "Five Nations Iroquois ") subfamily, and is spoken on Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation , Ontario, by around 240 Cayuga people, and on the Cattaraugus Reservation , New York, by fewer than 10. Cayuga is critically endangered, with only 115 people of the Indigenous population reporting Cayuga as their mother tongue in

387-635: Is difficult to establish. About 45,000 Iroquois lived in Canada in 1995, more than 39,000 in Ontario and the remainder in Quebec. Among the six nations and federally recognized units in the United States, total tribal enrollment in 1995 numbered about 30,000. In the 2000 US Census, 45,217 respondents identified solely as Iroquois (but this does not mean they were enrolled as members); and 80,822 as having Iroquois ancestry. Notes Bibliography Cayuga language Cayuga (Cayuga: Gayogo̱hó꞉nǫˀ )

430-568: Is not phonemic, but surfaces due to a phonological pattern of nasalization, where underlying /a/ becomes [ ã ] when following a nasal vowel. Sometimes, the sounds [ u ] and [ o ] are used interchangeably according to the speaker's preference. After long [ eː ] and [ oː ] , an [ n ] sound can be heard, especially when before [ t ] , [ d ] , [ k ] , [ ɡ ] , [ ts ] , and [ j ] . Vowels can be devoiced as [ V̥ ] allophonically, indicated in

473-980: Is spoken by those of the Lower End of the Six Nations and the Upper Cayuga are from the Upper End. The main difference between the two is that the Lower Cayuga use the sound [kj] and the Upper use the sound [tj] . Also, pronunciation differs between individual speakers of Cayuga and their preferences. There are five oral vowels in Cayuga, as well as four long vowels, [ iː ] , [ aː ] , [ oː ] , and [ eː ] . Cayuga also has three nasalized vowels , [ ɛ̃ ] , [ õ ] , and [ ã ] . Both [ u ] and [ ã ] are rare sounds in Cayuga. The latter

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516-532: Is the verb Yandosteka "love", and the pronoun is between yando- and -steka : The last form includes the common additional tense suffix -se , which literally conveys the progressive tense. There are also 'stative' classes of verbs that take the 'passive' (oblique) pronoun affixes (mi- or wi-, yi- etc.) as subjects. Additional tenses can be formed by the use of other suffixes including -ka (past), -ta (future), -wa (aorist or perfect), -kewa (past perfect), and -ma (perfect progressive). Rules for combining

559-600: The Bureau of Indian Affairs take this land into trust for them. They have been developing projects featuring indigenous planting, cultivation of herbs and medicinal plants, wild plant collection and a seed saving program. In 1995 there were nearly 450 Cayuga members in New York. In the 21st century, there are about 4,892 combined members of the Cayuga-Seneca Nation in Oklahoma. The total number of Iroquois

602-644: The Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma was added as a plaintiff in the claim. Following many years of pre-trial motions, a jury trial on damages was held from January 18-February 17, 2000. The jury returned a verdict in favor of the Cayuga Indian Nation of New York and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma, finding current fair market value damages of $ 35 million and total fair rental value damages of $ 3.5 million. The jury gave

645-432: The 1900s and found that only a few Cayuga of Tutelo ancestry remembered a handful of Tutelo words. Speck did much fieldwork to record and preserve their cultural traditions in the 1930s but found little of the speech remaining. Mithun managed to collect a handful of terms that were still remembered in 1980. The language as preserved by these efforts is now believed to have been mutually intelligible with, if not identical to,

688-444: The 1980s. The two dialects of the Cayuga at Six Nations are often associated with the two Cayuga longhouses, Sour Springs or “ Upper” Cayuga and “ Lower” Cayuga . Differences between these two dialects of southern Ontario are known to include two phonological patterns. In the Lower Cayuga (LC) variety, underlying *tj sequences surface as /ky/, e.g. LC gyę:gwa’ /kjɛ̃ːkwaʔ/ vs (UC) ję:gwa’ /tjɛ̃ːkwaʔ/. Another apparent difference involves

731-486: The 2021 Canadian census. The Cayuga people are working to revitalize the language. As an example of such, Six Nations Polytechnic has developed apps on IOS and study programs in Cayuga, Oneida , Mohawk and others. There are at least two distinct dialects of Cayuga. Two are spoken at Six Nations of the Grand River in southern Ontario. Another, called "Seneca-Cayuga", was spoken in Oklahoma until its extinction in

774-437: The 4th vowel from the end of the word." For example: These sounds are long, especially in an even-numbered position. When nouns and verbs are not at the end of a phrase, accent is placed on the final vowel. For example: Cayuga is a polysynthetic language . As with other Iroquoian languages, the verbal template contains an optional prepronominal prefix, a pronominal prefix (indicating agreement), an optional incorporated noun,

817-650: The British in recognition of their loyalty to the Crown. Following the end of the war, the Central New York Military Tract was established in order to grant land bounties to veterans. The tract originally included a Cayuga reservation surrounding the north end of Cayuga Lake, but the reservation was given up a few years later in a treaty with the state. Some Seneca and Cayuga had left the area earlier even as Tuscarora were migrating north in

860-549: The Cayuga Nation after the signing of the Treaty of Canandaigua after the American Revolutionary War . Its failure to get approval of the United States Senate meant the transactions were illegal, as the state had no constitutional authority to deal directly with Indian nations. The Treaty of Canandaigua holds that only the United States government may enter into legal discussions with the Haudenosaunee . In 1981,

903-617: The Continental Army. The campaign mobilized 6200 troops and devastated the Cayuga and other Iroquois homelands, destroying 40-50 villages. Those destroyed included major Cayuga villages such as Cayuga Castle and Chonodote (Peachtown). The expedition, with attacks from the spring through the fall, also destroyed the crops and winter stores of the Iroquois, to drive them out of the land. Survivors fled to other Iroquois tribes, or to Upper Canada . Some were granted land there by

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946-592: The Iroquois nations allied with the British, in part hoping to end encroachment on their lands by colonists. In 1778, various Iroquois bands, oft allied with British-colonial loyalists ( Tories ) conducted a series of raids along the frontier from Connecticut to New York and into south-central Pennsylvania threatening much of the Susquehanna Valley. From the revolutionary government's point of view in Philadelphia, several of these were atrocities, and in

989-727: The Lower Cayuga and Upper Cayuga, still live in Ontario , both at Six Nations of the Grand River , a reserve recognized by the Canadian government. Two federally recognized tribes of Cayuga constitute the third band in the United States: the Cayuga Nation of New York in Seneca Falls , New York, and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma . The Cayuga Nation of New York does not have a reservation. Members have lived among

1032-602: The Ohio Valley. Only weakened cobbled together tribes, such as the Mingo, were in the land, which was still mostly empty; creating a situation drawing settlers west in increasing numbers. By 1831 those Indians left in the lands east of Ohio were encouraged by bigotry, and at times forcibly removed to the Indian Territory , in what became Oklahoma. Their remnants, consequently, the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma are

1075-550: The Second Circuit rendered a decision that reversed the judgment of the trial court. It ruled in favor of the defendants , based on the doctrine of laches . Essentially the court ruled that the plaintiffs had taken too long to present their case, when it might have been equitably settled earlier. The Cayuga Indian Nation of New York sought review of this decision by the Supreme Court of the United States , which

1118-732: The Seneca Nation on their reservation. Since the late 20th century, they have acquired some land in their former homeland by purchase. The Cayuga Nation of New York filed an action on November 19, 1980, in the United States District Court for the Northern District of New York to pursue legislative and monetary restitution for land taken from it by the State of New York during the 18th and 19th centuries. New York had entered into land sales and leases with

1161-627: The U.S. government continues to send the requisite gift of muslin fabric to the nations each year. The state of New York made additional treaties with the tribes but failed to get them ratified by the Senate. As it lacked the constitutional authority to deal directly with the tribes, individual tribes have sued for land claims since the late 20th century, charging New York had no authority for their actions. The state rapidly arranged sales of more than 5 million acres (20,000 km ) of former Iroquois lands at inexpensive prices to encourage development in

1204-484: The classical nature of Tutelo's rich variety of verb tenses available to the speaker, including what he remarked as an " aorist " perfect verb tense, ending in "-wa". James Dorsey, another Siouan linguist, collected extensive vocabulary and grammar samples around the same time as Hale, as did Hewitt a few years later. Frachtenberg and Sapir both visited the Six Nations Ontario reserve in the first decade of

1247-612: The dialect of the Occaneechi , believed to be related to Tutelo, was used as a lingua franca by all the tribes in the region regardless of their first languages, and it was known to the chiefs, "conjurers," and priests of all tribes. These spiritual practitioners used it in their ceremonies, just as Roman Catholic priests in Europe and the US used Latin . Hale's grammar also noted further comparisons to Latin and Ancient Greek . He remarked on

1290-720: The early decades of the 1700s, going west of the Alleghenies to the long depopulated Ohio Country lands; settling in Western Pennsylvania , West Virginia , and Eastern Ohio . These tribes became known as the Mingo or "Black Mingo", for they had a bad reputation, so were able to take in their kin after that systematic bloodletting in 1779. After the Sullivan Campaign, more Cayuga joined them, as well as some other bands of Iroquois who left New York before

1333-556: The early summer that body proceeded to order Washington to send regiments to quell these disturbances. Consequently, in 1779, General George Washington of the Continental Army appointed General John Sullivan and James Clinton to lead the Sullivan Expedition , a retaliatory military campaign designed to unseat the Iroquois Confederacy and prevent the nations from continuing to attack New York militias and

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1376-857: The east and the Seneca to the west. Today, Cayuga people belong to the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation in Ontario , and the federally recognized Cayuga Nation of New York and the Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma . Political relations between the Cayuga, the British , and the Thirteen Colonies during the American Revolution were complicated and variable, with Cayuga warriors fighting on both sides (as well as abstaining from war entirely). Most of

1419-612: The end of the Revolutionary War. As the American Revolution was nearing its end, settlers resumed trekking west of the Alleghenies in a trickle that by 1810, became a flood. Other eastern Amerindians, joined by eastward remnants of Susquehannock and large groups of Delaware peoples had also traveled the ancient trails through the gaps of the Allegheny to found settlements such as Kittanning (village) and others in

1462-479: The ethnologist Horatio Hale , who had visited him at the Six Nations Reserve. Descendants living at Grand River Reserve in Ontario spoke Tutelo well into the 20th century. Linguists including Horatio Hale, J. N. B. Hewitt , James Owen Dorsey , Leo J. Frachtenberg , Edward Sapir , Frank Speck , and Marianne Mithun recorded the language. The last active speakers, a mother and daughter, died in

1505-512: The following analysis of the sound system of Tutelo: Tutelo has a standard vowel inventory for a Siouan language. Proto-Siouan *ũ and *ũː is lowered to /õ/ and /õː/, respectively. Independent personal pronouns, as recorded by Dorsey, are: The pronoun Huk "all" may be added to form the plurals Mimahuk "we" and Yimahuk "ye", and "they" is Imahese . In verbal conjugations, the subject pronouns are represented by various prefixes and suffixes, usually as follows: An example as given by Hale

1548-419: The metrical pattern of Laryngeal Spreading. In Lower Cayuga words, odd-numbered vowels preceding /h/ or /ʔ/ are pronounced with the voice quality of the following consonant. That is to say, such vowels are pronounced with whispered vowels when preceding /h/ or creaky voice before /ʔ/. An example of this occurs in the word for ‘nine,’ gyoHdo̜h [kjo̤htõh]. There are two varieties of Cayuga. The Lower Cayuga dialect

1591-538: The orthography used at Six Nations by underlining them. /ɑ̃/ occurs in only a few words. /ɛ̃/ may be pronounced [ʌ̃], and /õ/ may be [ũ]. Length is important because it alone can distinguish two completely different meanings from one another. For example: [haʔseʔ] you are going [haʔseː] you went Following are some words that demonstrate what some vowels sound like when they occur before [h]. In words like [ehaʔ] , [ẽhaʔ] , [ohaʔ] , and [õha] , [ e ] and [ ẽ ] devoiced as [e̥, ẽ̥] , sound like

1634-504: The return of the Cayuga People to their ancestral homelands. They planted a pine tree at this dedication as a symbol that the Cayuga People are still alive and wanting to return. The elder women of the Cayuga Nation broke the ground and planted the pine tree to welcome the return of their people to their home territory. In December 2005, the S.H.A.R.E. (Strengthening Haudenosaunee-American Relations through Education) Farm (including

1677-568: The speech of other Virginia Siouan groups in general, including the Monacan and Manahoac and Nahyssan confederacies, as well as the subdivisions of Occaneechi, Saponi, etc. In 1996, Giulia Oliverio wrote A Grammar and Dictionary of Tutelo as her dissertation. In 2021 the Living Tongues Institute for Endangered Languages assisted Tutelo activists in building a Living Dictionary for Tutelo-Saponi Monacan. Oliverio proposes

1720-487: The state a credit for the payments it had made to the Cayuga of about $ 1.6 million, leaving the total damages at approximately $ 36.9 million. On October 2, 2001, the court issued a decision and order which awarded a prejudgment interest award of $ 211 million and a total award of $ 247.9 million. Both the plaintiffs and the defendants appealed this award. On June 28, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for

1763-536: The state. It also granted some western lands to war veterans in lieu of pay. Speculators bought up as much land as they could and resold it to new settlers. Land-hungry Yankees from New England flooded into New York in waves of new settlement, as did some settlers from the Mohawk Valley. Immigrants also came from the British Isles and France after the war. There are three Cayuga bands. The two largest,

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1806-641: The suffixes with stems in final vowels are slightly complex. Cayuga nation The Cayuga ( Cayuga : Gayogo̱hó꞉nǫʼ , "People of the Great Swamp") are one of the five original constituents of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), a confederacy of Native Americans in New York . The Cayuga homeland lies in the Finger Lakes region along Cayuga Lake , between their league neighbors, the Onondaga to

1849-499: Was denied on May 15, 2006 . The time in which the Cayuga Indian Nation could ask the U.S. Supreme Court to rehear the case has passed. The Nation reclaimed its first land on July 17, 1996, by purchasing 14 acres (57,000 m ) in Seneca Falls, within their 64,000 acres (260 km ) land claim area. On August 2, 1997 a dedication was held where members of all the Iroquois Confederacy nations were present. This purchase began

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