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68-535: The name "VxD" is an abbreviation for "virtual xxx driver", where "xxx" is some class of hardware device. It derives from the fact that most drivers had filenames of the form vxxxd.386 in Windows 3.x . Some examples are vjoyd.386 (joystick) and vmm.386 ( memory manager ). VxDs under Windows 3.x usually have the filename extension .386 , while those under Windows 9x have .vxd . VxDs written for Windows 3.x can be used under Windows 9x but not vice versa. Prior to

136-460: A Winsock package was released for Windows for Workgroups, although it was later replaced by a 32-bit stack add-on package (codenamed Wolverine) that provided TCP/IP support in Windows for Workgroups 3.11. Its connectivity with NetWare networks was increased, while it also introduced support for Open Data-Link Interface cards and Internetwork Packet Exchange drivers. Remote access service

204-441: A mass storage cache and write buffer to improve both reading and writing performance. Operating systems borrow RAM capacity for caching so long as it is not needed by running software. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to storage; a common way of doing this is through a memory management technique called virtual memory . Modern computer memory is implemented as semiconductor memory , where data

272-442: A "business disappointment" due to its small amount of sold copies. Regarding the marketplace, Windows 3.1 had received an enthusiastic reception; its retail price sat at $ 149, and over three million copies of Windows 3.1 were sold in the first three months. The year of Windows 3.1's release was successful for Microsoft, which was named the "Most Innovative Company Operating in the U.S." by Fortune magazine, while Windows became

340-610: A free upgrade to anyone who owned Windows 3.1. An updated Simplified Chinese version of Windows 3.1 was released in November 1993, as Windows 3.2. The update was limited to this language version, as it only fixed issues related to the complex input system for the Simplified Chinese language. A font editor is present in Windows 3.2; it is used to add new Chinese characters to the already-existing fonts. Windows for Workgroups served as an update to Windows 3.1, and it

408-619: A lawsuit against Microsoft over the AARD code, which was later settled with Microsoft paying $ 280 million. Windows 3.1 found a niche market as an embedded operating system after becoming obsolete in the PC world. By 2008, both Virgin Atlantic and Qantas employed it for some of the onboard entertainment systems on long-distance jets. It also sees continued use as an embedded OS in retail cash tills. On July 14, 2013, Linux kernel version 3.11

476-475: A printer or to run Windows on a network, additional 2.5 MB of free space will be needed on the hard drive. The amount of RAM is dependent on software that runs on the PC; if the user is on the network and if the network requires a lot of memory, more RAM will be needed. Windows 3.1 includes more drivers for printers than its predecessor. It is also possible to connect to a network using Windows 3.1 via Hayes , Multi-Tech, or Trail Blazer modems. Windows 3.1

544-504: A protocol used for sharing files and printers over local networks . It introduced support for the NetBEUI protocol. The price sat at $ 69 for Windows 3.1 users. The other version, Windows for Workgroups 3.11, was released on November 8, 1993. It was codenamed Snowball, and it introduced support for 32-bit file access , drive sharing, and group calendaring. It also has built-in fax capabilities. It received network improvements;

612-593: Is semi-volatile . The term is used to describe a memory that has some limited non-volatile duration after power is removed, but then data is ultimately lost. A typical goal when using a semi-volatile memory is to provide the high performance and durability associated with volatile memories while providing some benefits of non-volatile memory. For example, some non-volatile memory types experience wear when written. A worn cell has increased volatility but otherwise continues to work. Data locations which are written frequently can thus be directed to use worn circuits. As long as

680-464: Is a system where each program is given an area of memory to use and is prevented from going outside that range. If the operating system detects that a program has tried to alter memory that does not belong to it, the program is terminated (or otherwise restricted or redirected). This way, only the offending program crashes, and other programs are not affected by the misbehavior (whether accidental or intentional). Use of protected memory greatly enhances both

748-572: Is also the first Windows to be distributed on a CD-ROM . The setup interface was simplified; express mode was introduced to automatically set up Windows. Windows 3.1 also includes an online tutorial applet for users regarding the use of the Windows 3.1 user interface . In addition it supported the Advanced Power Management standard. A special version named "Windows 3.1 for Central and Eastern Europe" introduced eleven languages to Windows 3.1. It also provided support for

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816-409: Is also used to describe semi-volatile behavior constructed from other memory types, such as nvSRAM , which combines SRAM and a non-volatile memory on the same chip , where an external signal copies data from the volatile memory to the non-volatile memory, but if power is removed before the copy occurs, the data is lost. Another example is battery-backed RAM , which uses an external battery to power

884-621: Is an MDI application that is used for moving, deleting, and managing files on the system. Microsoft also built Microsoft Bob , a utility that would act as a search assistant, on Windows 3.1, only for it to be released on Windows 95 in 1995. The introduction of Windows Registry , a centralized database that could store configuration information and settings for various operating systems components and applications, also occurred in this version. The Control Panel also received changes; its items were now hard-coded , and additional items could be added by placing additional .cpl files. Similarly,

952-470: Is computer memory that requires power to maintain the stored information. Most modern semiconductor volatile memory is either static RAM (SRAM) or dynamic RAM (DRAM). DRAM dominates for desktop system memory. SRAM is used for CPU cache . SRAM is also found in small embedded systems requiring little memory. SRAM retains its contents as long as the power is connected and may use a simpler interface, but commonly uses six transistors per bit . Dynamic RAM

1020-411: Is considered to be an improvement on its predecessors. It was praised for its reinvigoration of the user interface and technical design. Windows 3.1 sold over three million copies during the first three months of its release, although its counterpart Windows for Workgroups was noted as a "business disappointment" due to its small amount of sold copies. It was succeeded by Windows 95 , and Microsoft ended

1088-497: Is considered to be more stable and multimedia-friendly in comparison with its predecessor, while its user interface was reinvigorated. It has been shown as an improvement, and it possesses more features in comparison with its rival IBM OS/2 2.0 , which launched a month earlier than Windows 3.1. InfoWorld rated the operating environment a "very good" value. Windows for Workgroups received lukewarm reception; it has been praised for its technical design, but it has been also noted as

1156-918: Is more complicated for interfacing and control, needing regular refresh cycles to prevent losing its contents, but uses only one transistor and one capacitor per bit, allowing it to reach much higher densities and much cheaper per-bit costs. Non-volatile memory can retain the stored information even when not powered. Examples of non-volatile memory include read-only memory , flash memory , most types of magnetic computer storage devices (e.g. hard disk drives , floppy disks and magnetic tape ), optical discs , and early computer storage methods such as magnetic drum , paper tape and punched cards . Non-volatile memory technologies under development include ferroelectric RAM , programmable metallization cell , Spin-transfer torque magnetic RAM , SONOS , resistive random-access memory , racetrack memory , Nano-RAM , 3D XPoint , and millipede memory . A third category of memory

1224-399: Is often synonymous with the terms RAM , main memory , or primary storage . Archaic synonyms for main memory include core (for magnetic core memory) and store . Main memory operates at a high speed compared to mass storage which is slower but less expensive per bit and higher in capacity. Besides storing opened programs and data being actively processed, computer memory serves as

1292-411: Is organized into memory cells each storing one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and a multi-level cell capable of storing multiple bits per cell. The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length , for example, 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bits. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bits, making it possible to store 2 words in

1360-482: Is physically stored or whether the user's computer will have enough memory. The operating system will place actively used data in RAM, which is much faster than hard disks. When the amount of RAM is not sufficient to run all the current programs, it can result in a situation where the computer spends more time moving data from RAM to disk and back than it does accomplishing tasks; this is known as thrashing . Protected memory

1428-488: Is stored within memory cells built from MOS transistors and other components on an integrated circuit . There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory: volatile and non-volatile . Examples of non-volatile memory are flash memory and ROM , PROM , EPROM , and EEPROM memory. Examples of volatile memory are dynamic random-access memory (DRAM) used for primary storage and static random-access memory (SRAM) used mainly for CPU cache . Most semiconductor memory

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1496-620: The Calendar uses the .cal extension. Printer management tasks were moved over to Control Panel and Print Manager. Several printer drivers were improved in Windows 3.1, making the Print Manager more efficient to use. Windows 3.1 also includes troubleshooting and diagnostic tools such as the Dr. Watson utility which saves information about application errors, and Microsoft Diagnostics . Windows 3.1 also includes add-ons; Video for Windows

1564-522: The Cyrillic script . To use Czech, Hungarian, and Polish terminologies this version was required, while to use Russian terminologies a Russian version of Windows 3.1 was needed. Similarly, Microsoft also released Windows 3.1J with support for Japanese, which shipped 1.46 million copies in its first year on the market (1993) in Japan. Modular Windows was built for real-time consumer electronics, and

1632-501: The Electrotechnical Laboratory in 1972. Flash memory was invented by Fujio Masuoka at Toshiba in the early 1980s. Masuoka and colleagues presented the invention of NOR flash in 1984, and then NAND flash in 1987. Toshiba commercialized NAND flash memory in 1987. Developments in technology and economies of scale have made possible so-called very large memory (VLM) computers. Volatile memory

1700-499: The Royal Radar Establishment proposed digital storage systems that use CMOS (complementary MOS) memory cells, in addition to MOSFET power devices for the power supply , switched cross-coupling, switches and delay-line storage . The development of silicon-gate MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC) technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild in 1968 enabled the production of MOS memory chips . NMOS memory

1768-558: The System/360 Model 95 . Toshiba introduced bipolar DRAM memory cells for its Toscal BC-1411 electronic calculator in 1965. While it offered improved performance, bipolar DRAM could not compete with the lower price of the then dominant magnetic-core memory. MOS technology is the basis for modern DRAM. In 1966, Robert H. Dennard at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center was working on MOS memory. While examining

1836-699: The TrueType font system as a competitor to Adobe Type Manager . Its multimedia was also expanded, and screensavers were introduced, alongside new software such as Windows Media Player and Sound Recorder . File Manager and Control Panel received tweaks, while Windows 3.1 also saw the introduction of the Windows Registry and add-ons, and it could utilize more memory than its predecessors. Microsoft also released special versions of Windows 3.1 throughout 1992 and 1993; in Europe and Japan, Windows 3.1

1904-550: The Whirlwind I computer in 1953. Magnetic-core memory was the dominant form of memory until the development of MOS semiconductor memory in the 1960s. The first semiconductor memory was implemented as a flip-flop circuit in the early 1960s using bipolar transistors . Semiconductor memory made from discrete devices was first shipped by Texas Instruments to the United States Air Force in 1961. In

1972-548: The Win32 API (or another WDM driver) to emulate the desired I/O on behalf of the 16-bit program. Windows 3.1x Windows 3.1 is a major release of Microsoft Windows . It was released to manufacturing on April 6, 1992, as a successor to Windows 3.0 . Like its predecessors, the Windows 3.1 series run as a shell on top of MS-DOS ; it was the last Windows 16-bit operating environment as all future versions of Windows had moved to 32-bit . Windows 3.1 introduced

2040-556: The Windows NT Driver Model . Starting with Windows 2000 , Windows NT-based operating systems have adopted the Windows Driver Model from Windows 98. VxDs should not be confused with the similarly named NTVDM -specific 'VDDs' (Virtual Device Drivers), which provide a method of emulating direct I/O under a Windows NT " DOS Box ". NTVDM VDDs run as regular, 32-bit , user-mode DLLs , and must rely on

2108-561: The Arma Division of the American Bosch Arma Corporation. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze of Bell Labs proposed that the floating gate of a MOS semiconductor device could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM, which led to Dov Frohman of Intel inventing EPROM (erasable PROM) in 1971. EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) was developed by Yasuo Tarui, Yutaka Hayashi and Kiyoko Naga at

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2176-609: The Sound Recorder could play, record, and edit sound files that were affiliated with the WAV format. Minesweeper was officially introduced in Windows 3.1 as a replacement for Reversi, alongside Solitaire . MS-DOS programs were previously not able to be controlled with a mouse ; this ended up being introduced in Windows 3.1. Object Linking and Embedding (OLE) was added to allow drag-and-drop embedding of images and formatted text between Windows programs. SVGA color support

2244-421: The advent of Windows, DOS applications would either communicate directly with the various pieces of hardware (responding to interrupts , reading and writing device memory etc.) or go through a DOS device driver . As DOS was not multitasking, each application would have exclusive and complete control over the hardware while running. Though Windows applications don't often communicate directly with hardware, it

2312-569: The application. To improve user interaction, Microsoft initiated warning and event sounds, and introduced computer command shortcuts for copy, cut, and paste. Windows 3.1 is also noted for its improvement of multimedia; screensavers , Windows Media Player , and Sound Recorder were introduced into the operating environment. These features were already present on the Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions version, although they were only available to users with newly bought PCs. The Media Player could play MIDI music files and AVI video files, while

2380-490: The characteristics of MOS technology, he found it was possible to build capacitors , and that storing a charge or no charge on the MOS capacitor could represent the 1 and 0 of a bit, while the MOS transistor could control writing the charge to the capacitor. This led to his development of a single-transistor DRAM memory cell. In 1967, Dennard filed a patent for a single-transistor DRAM memory cell based on MOS technology. This led to

2448-597: The delay line, the Williams tube and Selectron tube , originated in 1946, both using electron beams in glass tubes as means of storage. Using cathode-ray tubes , Fred Williams invented the Williams tube, which was the first random-access computer memory . The Williams tube was able to store more information than the Selectron tube (the Selectron was limited to 256 bits, while the Williams tube could store thousands) and

2516-401: The early 1940s. Through the construction of a glass tube filled with mercury and plugged at each end with a quartz crystal, delay lines could store bits of information in the form of sound waves propagating through the mercury, with the quartz crystals acting as transducers to read and write bits. Delay-line memory was limited to a capacity of up to a few thousand bits. Two alternatives to

2584-594: The first commercial DRAM IC chip, the Intel 1103 in October 1970. Synchronous dynamic random-access memory (SDRAM) later debuted with the Samsung KM48SL2000 chip in 1992. The term memory is also often used to refer to non-volatile memory including read-only memory (ROM) through modern flash memory . Programmable read-only memory (PROM) was invented by Wen Tsing Chow in 1956, while working for

2652-583: The first time on March 1, 1992. The advertisements, developed by Ogilvy & Mather , were designed to introduce a broader audience to Windows. Windows 3.1 was codenamed Janus. Like its predecessors, the operating environment runs as a shell on top of MS-DOS , although it does not include the MS-DOS Executive shell. After the introduction of Windows 1.0 , Microsoft had worked on gaining support from companies to expand its operating environment on different types of PCs . Tandy Corporation

2720-518: The following types: Virtual memory is a system where physical memory is managed by the operating system typically with assistance from a memory management unit , which is part of many modern CPUs . It allows multiple types of memory to be used. For example, some data can be stored in RAM while other data is stored on a hard drive (e.g. in a swapfile ), functioning as an extension of the cache hierarchy . This offers several advantages. Computer programmers no longer need to worry about where their data

2788-864: The hardware. Instead of a machine port representing an actual device, it would represent a "virtual" device, which could be managed by the operating system. Under Windows 9x , the VxD is a Linear Executable format file. Although Windows 98 introduced the Windows Driver Model (WDM), VxD device drivers can be used under Windows 98 and Windows Me. Using VxD drivers instead of WDM drivers in Windows 9x may result in advanced ACPI states like hibernation being unavailable. VxDs are not usable in Windows NT or its descendants. Windows NT-based operating systems from 3.1 to 4.0 must use drivers written specifically for them. These drivers are otherwise known as

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2856-489: The highlighting of the operating system suggests a software failure. In 2016, the Internet Archive organization released Windows 3.1 as an emulated environment in a web browser . In January 2024, German state-owned national railway company Deutsche Bahn posted a job listing for a system administrator with "knowledge of legacy operating systems". The main responsibilities listed in the post were maintenance of

2924-449: The late 1960s. The invention of the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor ( MOSFET ) enabled the practical use of metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) transistors as memory cell storage elements. MOS memory was developed by John Schmidt at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1964. In addition to higher performance, MOS semiconductor memory was cheaper and consumed less power than magnetic core memory. In 1965, J. Wood and R. Ball of

2992-447: The location is updated within some known retention time, the data stays valid. After a period of time without update, the value is copied to a less-worn circuit with longer retention. Writing first to the worn area allows a high write rate while avoiding wear on the not-worn circuits. As a second example, an STT-RAM can be made non-volatile by building large cells, but doing so raises the cost per bit and power requirements and reduces

3060-457: The memory device in case of external power loss. If power is off for an extended period of time, the battery may run out, resulting in data loss. Proper management of memory is vital for a computer system to operate properly. Modern operating systems have complex systems to properly manage memory. Failure to do so can lead to bugs or slow performance. Improper management of memory is a common cause of bugs and security vulnerabilities, including

3128-478: The memory. In the early 1940s, memory technology often permitted a capacity of a few bytes. The first electronic programmable digital computer , the ENIAC , using thousands of vacuum tubes , could perform simple calculations involving 20 numbers of ten decimal digits stored in the vacuum tubes. The next significant advance in computer memory came with acoustic delay-line memory , developed by J. Presper Eckert in

3196-436: The most widely used GUI -based operating environment. Microsoft ended its support for Windows 3.1 and Windows for Workgroups on December 31, 2001, although the embedded version of Windows for Workgroups 3.11 was retired on November 1, 2008. The operating environment was superseded by Windows NT 3.1 , which was released in 1993, and Windows 95 in 1995. The installer of the beta release used code that checked whether it

3264-423: The old system and driver updates. The need for the continued use of Windows 3.11 could apparently be traced back to Siemens ' SIBAS (Siemens Bahn Automatisierungs System) automation system used to control trains. The job post was retracted due to "unfortunate wording". Computer memory Computer memory stores information, such as data and programs, for immediate use in the computer . The term memory

3332-409: The reliability and security of a computer system. Without protected memory, it is possible that a bug in one program will alter the memory used by another program. This will cause that other program to run off of corrupted memory with unpredictable results. If the operating system's memory is corrupted, the entire computer system may crash and need to be rebooted . At times programs intentionally alter

3400-479: The same year, the concept of solid-state memory on an integrated circuit (IC) chip was proposed by applications engineer Bob Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor . The first bipolar semiconductor memory IC chip was the SP95 introduced by IBM in 1965. While semiconductor memory offered improved performance over magnetic-core memory, it remained larger and more expensive and did not displace magnetic-core memory until

3468-416: The support for Windows 3.1 series on December 31, 2001, except for the embedded version, which was retired in 2008. Windows 3.0 , the predecessor of 3.1, was released in 1990, and is considered to be the first version of Windows to receive critical acclaim. Windows 3.0 received around 10 million sales before the release of Windows 3.1 on April 6, 1992. Microsoft began a television advertising campaign for

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3536-510: The then-new 32-bit Windows API , by introducing Win32s , an enabling technology. Microsoft also provided WinG , an application program interface, to entice developers to move from DOS to Windows. It also provided a device-independent interface to graphics and printer hardware, and allowed programs to have both read and write capabilities to the WinGDC. Unlike all previous versions, Windows 3.1 could not run in real mode and it insisted on

3604-401: The use of 80286 processors or above. Because of this, the maximum memory available was increased. While Windows 3.0 was limited to 16 MB maximum memory, Windows 3.1 could access a theoretical 4 GB in the 386 enhanced mode. The actual practical ceiling is 256 MB. Like its predecessors, it runs as a 16-bit system; Windows 3.1 is also the last Windows to run in 16-bit mode. It

3672-434: The write speed. Using small cells improves cost, power, and speed, but leads to semi-volatile behavior. In some applications, the increased volatility can be managed to provide many benefits of a non-volatile memory, for example by removing power but forcing a wake-up before data is lost; or by caching read-only data and discarding the cached data if the power-off time exceeds the non-volatile threshold. The term semi-volatile

3740-564: Was also added, while Object Linking and Embedding, which was implemented in Windows 3.1, was also included in the Windows for Workgroups version. The Workgroups version also introduced the Microsoft Mail program, which allowed users to receive and send email , and Microsoft Schedule+ , a time management app. Windows for Workgroups could also be accessed from an OS/2 client that uses the Server Message Block (SMB),

3808-410: Was also introduced in this version. File Manager had also received tweaks; split view-mode was introduced, users were now able to browse files without having to open separate windows, while files were able to be dragged and dropped to other locations on the system. An option for quick formatting was introduced to format floppy disks and copy its files without having to quit Windows. File Manager

3876-638: Was commercialized by IBM in the early 1970s. MOS memory overtook magnetic core memory as the dominant memory technology in the early 1970s. The two main types of volatile random-access memory (RAM) are static random-access memory (SRAM) and dynamic random-access memory (DRAM). Bipolar SRAM was invented by Robert Norman at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963, followed by the development of MOS SRAM by John Schmidt at Fairchild in 1964. SRAM became an alternative to magnetic-core memory, but requires six transistors for each bit of data. Commercial use of SRAM began in 1965, when IBM introduced their SP95 SRAM chip for

3944-429: Was designed to be controlled via television . It was a special version of Windows 3.1, which was designed to run on Tandy Video Information System ; it allowed users to run multimedia software without having to buy a personal computer. It also contained a software development kit (SDK) for programmers to write applications that would run on devices that have Modular Windows. The SDK was sold for $ 99. Modular Windows

4012-469: Was discontinued in 1994. Released on November 8, 1993, Windows 3.11 was introduced with fixes for network problems which were present on Windows 3.1. As a minor update, new features were not present in this version. It also did not run on IBM's OS/2 for Windows. Windows 3.11 allowed users to connect to each other as peers to share the resources of their computers. Microsoft replaced all retail and OEM versions of Windows 3.1 with Windows 3.11 and provided

4080-418: Was introduced as a product for users to remotely access Windows NT and its Advanced Server networks. It runs in 80386 enhanced mode, and it supports the use of network redirectors . It was sold in two versions; the complete package cost $ 219 while the "Workgroup Add-on for Windows" cost $ 69 . The official system requirements for Windows 3.1 and subsequent versions include the following: To use

4148-419: Was introduced in November 1992 as a reaction to Apple 's QuickTime technology. At the price of $ 200, the software included editing and encoding programs. It was later built into Windows 95 . Microsoft also published Windows for Pen Computing , a pen computing interface which was created in response to PenPoint OS by GO Corporation . The operating environment was also given limited compatibility with

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4216-600: Was introduced with more language support, while Tandy Video Information System received a special version, called Modular Windows. In November 1993, Windows 3.11 was released as a minor update, while Windows 3.2 was released as a Simplified Chinese version of Windows 3.1. Microsoft also introduced Windows for Workgroups, the first version of Windows to allow integrated networking . Mostly oriented towards businesses , it received network improvements and it allowed users to share files, use print servers, and chat online, while it also introduced peer-to-peer networking. The series

4284-421: Was less expensive. The Williams tube was nevertheless frustratingly sensitive to environmental disturbances. Efforts began in the late 1940s to find non-volatile memory . Magnetic-core memory allowed for memory recall after power loss. It was developed by Frederick W. Viehe and An Wang in the late 1940s, and improved by Jay Forrester and Jan A. Rajchman in the early 1950s, before being commercialized with

4352-512: Was officially named "Linux For Workgroups" as a tongue-in-cheek reference to Windows for Workgroups 3.11. In November 2015, the failure of a Windows 3.1 system in Orly Airport in Paris, which was responsible for communicating visual range information in foggy weather to pilots, made operations temporarily cease. Whether the failure was hardware- or software-based is not specified, though

4420-573: Was open to shipping Tandy Sensation PCs with the Windows 3.1 operating environment. IBM and its PCs were also provided with Windows 3.1. Further enhancements were introduced in Windows 3.1. The TrueType font system was introduced to provide scalable fonts to Windows applications, without having to resort on using third-party technology such as Adobe Type Manager (ATM). Windows 3.1 introduced Arial , Courier New , and Times New Roman fonts, in regular, bold, italic, and bold-italic versions, which could be scaled to any size and rotated, depending on

4488-602: Was running on Microsoft-licensed DOS or another DOS operating system, such as DR-DOS . It was known as AARD code, and Microsoft disabled it before the final release of Windows 3.1, though without removing it altogether. Digital Research , who owned DR-DOS, released a patch within weeks to allow the installer to continue. Memos that were released during the United States v. Microsoft Corp. antitrust case in 1999 revealed that Microsoft specifically focused it on DR-DOS. When Caldera bought DR-DOS from Novell , they brought

4556-597: Was the first version of Windows that was suitable for integrated networking . Initially developed as an add-on for Windows 3.0, it was later released in 1992. It introduced drivers and protocols for peer-to-peer networking. Windows for Workgroups was mostly oriented towards businesses . The first version of Windows for Workgroups, 3.1, was released on October 27, 1992. Codenamed Winball and Sparta, it allows users to share files , use print servers , and chat online ; files could be accessed from other machines that run either Windows or DOS. The Microsoft Hearts card game

4624-444: Was the only way for Windows drivers; and still is in the real and standard modes of Windows 3.x. Windows/386 and onward allowed multiple DOS applications to execute concurrently by executing each within its own virtual machine . To share physical resources among these virtual machines, Microsoft introduced virtual device drivers. These drivers solved issues relating to conflicting usage of physical resources by intercepting calls to

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