Misplaced Pages

#634365

73-513: The outpost of Epsumb or Jeundo was founded between the Nyong and Sanaga rivers at the northern edge of the area's forests in 1887 by German explorers as a trading base for rubber and ivory. A military garrison was built in 1895 which enabled further colonization. After Imperial Germany's defeat in World War I , France held eastern Cameroon as a mandate , and Yaoundé was chosen to become

146-399: A tropical wet and dry climate ( Aw ), and it is thermally equatorial rather than tropical, with a narrow range of monthly temperatures throughout the year. However, primarily due to the altitude, temperatures are not quite as hot as one would expect for a city located near the equator. Yaoundé features a lengthy wet season , covering a ten-month span between March and November. However, there

219-570: A "$ 152 million plan, largely financed by loans, primarily from the African Development Bank and the French Development Agency ", slated for completion in 2017. Despite the security issues and humanitarian crises that have plagued the central African nation, its economy remains stable. In fact, there is diversification of its productive economic activities, with the services sector contributing about half of

292-399: A bacillus that he suspected was the cause of typhoid. Eberth is given credit for discovering the bacterium definitively by successfully isolating the same bacterium from 18 of 40 typhoid victims and failing to discover the bacterium present in any "control" victims of other diseases. In 1884, pathologist Georg Theodor August Gaffky (1850–1918) confirmed Eberth's findings. Gaffky isolated

365-496: A chlorination tablet to drop into the water. The Lyster bag was essential for the survival of American soldiers in the Vietnam War . There were several occurrences of milk delivery men spreading typhoid fever throughout the communities they served. Although typhoid is not spread through milk itself, there were several examples of milk distributors in many locations watering their milk down with contaminated water, or cleaning

438-435: A large outbreak and a carrier at the genome level provides new insight into the pathogenesis of the pathogen. In industrialized nations, water sanitation and food handling improvements have reduced the number of typhoid cases. Third world nations have the highest rates. These areas lack access to clean water, proper sanitation systems, and proper health-care facilities. In these areas, such access to basic public-health needs

511-421: A positive test. A single control band indicates a negative test. A single first fixed line or no band at all indicates an invalid test. Typhidot's biggest limitation is that it is not quantitative, just positive or negative. The Tubex test contains two types of particles: brown magnetic particles coated with antigen and blue indicator particles coated with O9 antibody. During the test, if antibodies are present in

584-462: A reduced susceptibility to fluoroquinolones , the class which CIP belongs ( MIC 0.125–1.0 mg/L), would not be detected by this method. In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths. It occurs most often in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old. In 2013, it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990. Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia have

657-571: A short bacillus in the organs and feces of typhoid victims in 1874. Browicz was able to isolate and grow the bacilli but did not go as far as to insinuate or prove that they caused the disease. In April 1880, three months prior to Eberth's publication, Edwin Klebs described short and filamentous bacilli in the Peyer's patches in typhoid victims. The bacterium's role in disease was speculated but not confirmed. In 1880, Karl Joseph Eberth described

730-568: A specific 50 Kd OMP antigen. This test is carried out on a cellulose nitrate membrane where a specific S. typhi outer membrane protein is attached as fixed test lines. It separately identifies IgM and IgG antibodies. IgM shows recent infection; IgG signifies remote infection. The sample pad of this kit contains colloidal gold-anti-human IgG or gold-anti-human IgM. If the sample contains IgG and IgM antibodies against those antigens, they will react and turn red. The typhidot test becomes positive within 2–3 days of infection. Two colored bands indicate

803-506: A specific disease, unique from typhus . Both doctors performed autopsies on individuals who died in Paris due to fever – and indicated that many had lesions on the Peyer's patches which correlated with distinct symptoms before death. British medics were skeptical of the differentiation between typhoid and typhus because both were endemic to Britain at that time. However, in France only typhoid

SECTION 10

#1732771928635

876-683: A total of 1,098 cases, 90.9% of which were travel-related, mainly acquired during travel to South Asia . The plague of Athens , during the Peloponnesian War , was most likely an outbreak of typhoid fever. During the war, Athenians retreated into a walled-in city to escape attack from the Spartans . This massive influx of humans into a concentrated space overwhelmed the water supply and waste infrastructure, likely leading to unsanitary conditions as fresh water became harder to obtain and waste became more difficult to collect and remove beyond

949-466: A vaccination program starting in 1999. Vaccination has proven effective at controlling outbreaks in high-incidence areas and is also very cost-effective: prices are normally less than US$ 1 per dose. Because the price is low, poverty-stricken communities are more willing to take advantage of the vaccinations. Although vaccination programs for typhoid have proven effective, they alone cannot eliminate typhoid fever. Combining vaccines with public-health efforts

1022-423: A year, affecting as many as 100,000 people at a time." After four years, the frequency of flooding had been reduced from fifteen to three times a year, and cases of water-borne diseases such as typhoid and malaria were reduced by almost half. Although Melingui died in 2013, local officials are continuing his efforts to transform the city. Ongoing improvements to sanitation infrastructure are being carried out under

1095-471: Is Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi. Based on MLST subtyping scheme, the two main sequence types of the S. Typhi are ST1 and ST2, which are widespread globally. Global phylogeographical analysis showed dominance of a haplotype 58 (H58), which probably originated in India during the late 1980s and is now spreading through the world with multi-drug resistance . A more detailed genotyping scheme

1168-453: Is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin . Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice. Cefixime is a suitable oral alternative. Properly treated, typhoid fever is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics such as ampicillin , chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole , amoxicillin , and ciprofloxacin have been commonly used to treat it. Treatment with antibiotics reduces

1241-571: Is a disease caused by Salmonella enterica serotype Typhi bacteria, also called Salmonella typhi . Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days. This is commonly accompanied by weakness, abdominal pain , constipation , headaches , and mild vomiting. Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots . In severe cases, people may experience confusion. Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months. Diarrhea may be severe, but

1314-473: Is a major civilian hub, while nearby Yaoundé Airport is used by the military. Train lines run west to the port city of Douala and north to N'Gaoundéré . Cameroon is a bilingual country, where English and French are both official languages; therefore in the city there is a coexistence of French educational system schools, where the degree giving access to university is the Baccalaureate , and all

1387-503: Is a noticeable decrease in precipitation within the wet season, seen during the month of July, almost giving the city the appearance of having two separate rainy seasons; this is because the city is only slightly north of the equator. It is primarily due to the relative lull in precipitation during this month that Yaoundé features a tropical wet and dry climate, as opposed to a tropical monsoon climate . Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Yaoundé: Many bus companies operate from

1460-675: Is a river in Cameroon . The river flows approximately 690 kilometres (430 mi) to empty into the Gulf of Guinea . The Nyong originates 40 km (25 mi) east of the town of Abong-Mbang , where the northern rain forest feeds it. The river's length is almost parallel to the lower reaches of the Sanaga River . Its mouth is in Petit Batanga, 60 km (40 mi) south-southwest of Edéa . In two places, Mbalmayo and Déhané,

1533-513: Is also a regional distribution centre for coffee , cocoa , copra , sugar cane and rubber . Local residents engage in urban agriculture. The city is estimated to have "50,000 pigs and over a million chickens." In 2010, under Mayor Jean Claude Adjessa Melingui, Yaoundé began a flood reduction project, the Yaoundé City Sanitation Master Plan, to deal with "severe floods [that] disrupted the city 15 to 20 times

SECTION 20

#1732771928635

1606-708: Is better at treating resistant typhoid than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone. Azithromycin can be taken by mouth and is less expensive than ceftriaxone, which is given by injection. A separate problem exists with laboratory testing for reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin; current recommendations are that isolates should be tested simultaneously against ciprofloxacin (CIP) and against nalidixic acid (NAL), that isolates sensitive to both CIP and NAL should be reported as "sensitive to ciprofloxacin", and that isolates sensitive to CIP but not to NAL should be reported as "reduced sensitivity to ciprofloxacin". But an analysis of 271 isolates found that around 18% of isolates with

1679-483: Is between 1% and 4%. Typhus is a different disease, caused by unrelated species of bacteria. Owing to their similar symptoms, they were not recognized as distinct diseases until the 1800s. "Typhoid" means "resembling typhus". Classically, the progression of untreated typhoid fever has three distinct stages, each lasting about a week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes exhausted and emaciated. The Gram-negative bacterium that causes typhoid fever

1752-470: Is different than the other Salmonella bacteria that usually cause salmonellosis , a common type of food poisoning. Diagnosis is performed by culturing and identifying S. enterica typhi from patient samples or detecting an immune response to the pathogen from blood samples . Recently, new advances in large-scale data collection and analysis have allowed researchers to develop better diagnostics, such as detecting changing abundances of small molecules in

1825-533: Is generally undertaken while awaiting the results of the Widal test and blood and stool cultures. The Widal test is used to identify specific antibodies in the serum of people with typhoid by using antigen-antibody interactions. In this test, the serum is mixed with a dead bacterial suspension of Salmonella with specific antigens. If the patient's serum contains antibodies against those antigens, they get attached to them, forming clumps. If clumping does not occur,

1898-731: Is home to foreign embassies and the expatriate European, American and other continental communities (drawn mainly from the diplomatic corps). The presidential palace and compound are in the Etoudi district. Also found in Yaoundé are: There is a small zoo in the Mvog-Betsi neighbourhood. Yaoundé has a small assortment of Pubs, nightclubs and restaurants. A distance outside Yaoundé is the NGO Ape Action Africa , which rescues and rehabilitates Great Apes threatened with extinction by

1971-455: Is indicated for patients with multiple perforations. If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is sometimes successful, especially in patients with gallstones , but is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state because of persisting hepatic infection. As resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and streptomycin

2044-429: Is less than 1%, but 3–5% of people who are infected develop a chronic infection in the gall bladder. Since S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is human-restricted, these chronic carriers become the crucial reservoir, which can persist for decades for further spread of the disease, further complicating its identification and treatment. Lately, the study of S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi associated with

2117-448: Is most common in India. Children are most commonly affected. Typhoid decreased in the developed world in the 1940s as a result of improved sanitation and the use of antibiotics. Every year about 400 cases are reported in the U.S. and an estimated 6,000 people have typhoid. In 2015, it resulted in about 149,000 deaths worldwide – down from 181,000 in 1990. Without treatment, the risk of death may be as high as 20%. With treatment, it

2190-541: Is not expected in the near future. In 2004–2005 an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in more than 42,000 cases and 214 deaths. Since November 2016, Pakistan has had an outbreak of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) typhoid fever. In Europe, a report based on data for 2017 retrieved from The European Surveillance System (TESSy) on the distribution of confirmed typhoid and paratyphoid fever cases found that 22 EU/EEA countries reported

2263-634: Is now common, these agents are no longer used as first–line treatment of typhoid fever. Typhoid resistant to these agents is known as multidrug-resistant typhoid. Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia . Many centres are shifting from ciprofloxacin to ceftriaxone as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, or Vietnam. Also, it has been suggested that azithromycin

Yaoundé - Misplaced Pages Continue

2336-456: Is now northern Cameroon, subjugating or displacing its largely non-Muslim inhabitants. The outpost of Epsumb or Jeundo was founded between the Nyong and Sanaga rivers at the northern edge of the area's forests in 1887, 1888, or February 1889 by the German explorers Lt. Richard Kund and Hans Tappenbeck by the agreement of the chiefs of Ela Esono. From December 1889 to May 1895, it

2409-508: Is possible that the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar had either a liver abscess or typhoid fever, and survived by using ice baths and cold compresses as a means of treatment for his fever. There is a statue of the Greek physician, Antonius Musa , who treated his fever. The French doctors Pierre-Fidele Bretonneau and Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis are credited with describing typhoid fever as

2482-496: Is someone who is still excreting typhoid bacteria in stool a year after the acute stage of the infection. Diagnosis is made by any blood , bone marrow , or stool cultures and with the Widal test (demonstration of antibodies against Salmonella antigens O-somatic and H-flagellar ). In epidemics and less wealthy countries, after excluding malaria , dysentery , or pneumonia , a therapeutic trial time with chloramphenicol

2555-428: Is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. Risk factors include limited access to clean drinking water and poor sanitation . Those who have not yet been exposed to it and ingest contaminated drinking water or food are most at risk for developing symptoms. Only humans can be infected; there are no known animal reservoirs. Salmonella Typhi which causes typhoid fever

2628-716: Is the Central Hospital of Yaoundé ( Hôpital Central de Yaoundé ) with 650 beds. Yaoundé General Hospital ( Hôpital Général de Yaoundé – HGY) had 302 beds when it was built in 1985. Other hospitals are the Yaoundé Gynaecology, Obstetrics and Pediatrics Hospital ( Hôpital Gynéco-Obstétrique et Pédiatrique de Yaoundé – HGOPY) and the University Hospital Center of Yaoundé ( Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Yaoundé – CHU). The national football team plays some of its home matches in

2701-706: Is the only proven way to control this disease. Since the 1990s, the WHO has recommended two typhoid fever vaccines. The ViPS vaccine is given by injection, and the Ty21a by capsules. Only people over age two are recommended to be vaccinated with the ViPS vaccine, and it requires a revaccination after 2–3 years, with a 55–72% efficacy. The Ty21a vaccine is recommended for people five and older, lasting 5–7 years with 51–67% efficacy. The two vaccines have proved safe and effective for epidemic disease control in multiple regions. A version of

2774-494: Is uncommon. Other people may carry it without being affected, but are still contagious. Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever, along with paratyphoid fever . Salmonella enterica Typhi is believed to infect and replicate only within humans. Typhoid is caused by the bacterium Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi growing in the intestines , Peyer's patches , mesenteric lymph nodes , spleen , liver , gallbladder , bone marrow and blood . Typhoid

2847-614: The Ahmadou Ahidjo stadium and the football clubs Canon Yaoundé , Impôts FC and Tonnerre Yaoundé are all based in the city. The Grand Prix Chantal Biya , a men's road bicycle racing event on the UCI Africa Tour , starts and finishes in Yaoundé. Yaoundé is also the base for the National Institute of Youth and Sport ( INJS ); this school trains government workers who will be in charge of sport all across

2920-687: The University of Yaoundé II (on a campus outside of town), the Protestant University of Central Africa (UPAC) and the Catholic University of Central Africa (UCAC). Several of the nation's professional schools are also located in Yaounde (Higher Teacher's training college, École Militaire InterArmes du Cameroun) as well as various schools for Engineers (Polytech), Doctors (CUSS), Nurses and Diplomats. The largest hospital

2993-633: The Peyer's patches by examining sixty-six autopsies from fever patients and concluding that the symptoms of headaches, diarrhea, rash spots, and abdominal pain were present only in patients who were found to have intestinal lesions after death; these observations solidified the association of the disease with the intestinal tract and gave the first clue to the route of transmission. In 1847 William Budd learned of an epidemic of typhoid fever in Clifton, and identified that all 13 of 34 residents who had contracted

Yaoundé - Misplaced Pages Continue

3066-658: The Presidential Palace and Palais des Congrès. The earliest inhabitants of Cameroon were likely the Bakas (pygmies) . They still inhabit the forests of the south and east regions. Bantu speakers originating in the Cameroonian highlands were among the first groups to move out before other invaders. During the late 1770s and early 1800s, the Fulani —a pastoral Islamic people of the western Sahel—conquered most of what

3139-569: The US was made in 1908 to the Jersey City, New Jersey , water supply. Credit for the decision to build the chlorination system has been given to John L. Leal . The chlorination facility was designed by George W. Fuller . Outbreaks in traveling military groups led to the creation of the Lyster bag in 1915: a bag with a faucet which can be hung from a tree or pole, filled with water, and comes with

3212-425: The biliary tract after symptoms have resolved. Surgery is usually indicated if intestinal perforation occurs. One study found a 30-day mortality rate of 9% (8/88), and surgical site infections at 67% (59/88), with the disease burden borne predominantly by low-resource countries. For surgical treatment, most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum . Small-bowel resection

3285-412: The blood that may specifically indicate typhoid fever. Diagnostic tools in regions where typhoid is most prevalent are quite limited in their accuracy and specificity, and the time required for a proper diagnosis, the increasing spread of antibiotic resistance , and the cost of testing are also hardships for under-resourced healthcare systems. A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 40–90% of cases during

3358-517: The capital of the colony in 1922. Douala remained the more important settlement, but Yaoundé saw rapid growth and continued as the seat of government for the Republic of Cameroon upon its independence in 1960. Most of Yaoundé's economy is still centred on the administrative structure but major industries in Yaoundé include tobacco , dairy products, beer, clay , glass goods and timber . The city has many striking monuments and buildings, such as

3431-591: The case-fatality rate to about 1%. Without treatment, some patients develop sustained fever, bradycardia, hepatosplenomegaly, abdominal symptoms, and occasionally pneumonia. In white-skinned patients, pink spots, which fade on pressure, appear on the skin of the trunk in up to 20% of cases. In the third week, untreated cases may develop gastrointestinal and cerebral complications, which may prove fatal in 10–20% of cases. The highest case fatality rates are reported in children under 4. Around 2–5% of those who contract typhoid fever become chronic carriers, as bacteria persist in

3504-459: The city between 1980 and 2014, causing massive loss of life and economic damage. However, there has been a reduction of flooding in the city since the establishment of a sanitation master plan to address the issue. Another measure was to relocate people living along the drainage routes and in low-lying flood zones. The city centre houses government offices, some hotels, and the central market. The Bastos district, with most homes owned by Cameroonians,

3577-570: The city conducted an investigation of typhoid symptoms and cases along his route and found evidence of a significant outbreak. A month after the outbreak was first reported, the Boston Globe published a short statement declaring the outbreak over, stating "[a]t Jamaica Plain there is a slight increase, the total being 272 cases. Throughout the city there is a total of 348 cases." There was at least one death reported during this outbreak: Mrs. Sophia S. Engstrom, aged 46. Typhoid continued to ravage

3650-418: The city walls. In 2006, examining the remains for a mass burial site from Athens from around the time of the plague (~430 B.C.) revealed that fragments of DNA similar to modern day S. Typhi DNA were detected, whereas Yersinia pestis (plague), Rickettsia prowazekii (typhus), Mycobacterium tuberculosis , cowpox virus , and Bartonella henselae were not detected in any of the remains tested. It

3723-501: The city; particularly in the Nsam and Mvan districts. Frequent buses run on the road between Yaoundé and Douala, which has witnessed several fatal accidents. Travel time by road between Douala and Yaounde is approximately 3 hours. Traffic in the city can be heavy during weekdays, but is very light during the weekends. Yaoundé has made significant progress in infrastructure, especially road construction. Yaoundé Nsimalen International Airport

SECTION 50

#1732771928635

3796-500: The cocoa crisis and unrest along the coast. It continued as the seat of government for the Republic of Cameroon upon its independence. Most of Yaoundé's economy is centred on the administrative structure of the civil service and the diplomatic services. Owing to these high-profile central structures, Yaounde has a higher standard of living and security than the rest of Cameroon. Major industries in Yaoundé include tobacco , dairy products, beer, clay , glass goods and timber . It

3869-564: The country during their career. Joel Embiid , center for the Philadelphia 76ers , and Luc Mbah a Moute , who was a forward for the Los Angeles Clippers are from Yaoundé, as are Samuel Umtiti , a footballer for the national team of France and FC Barcelona , Breel Embolo , a footballer for AS Monaco FC and Vincent Aboubakar , a footballer for Porto . Nyong River The Nyong (formerly German : Yong )

3942-462: The disease drew their drinking water from the same well. Notably, this observation was two years prior to John Snow first publishing an early version of his theory that contaminated water was the central conduit for transmitting cholera . Budd later became health officer of Bristol and ensured a clean water supply, and documented further evidence of typhoid as a water-borne illness throughout his career. Polish scientist Tadeusz Browicz described

4015-799: The education is in French, and the English educational system schools, where the degree giving access to university is the GCE Advanced level . There are three American schools in Cameroon, the American School of Yaounde (ASOY) and Rain Forest International School (RFIS), and the American School of Douala (ASD). There is also one Turkish School, The Amity College/School. Yaoundé is the site of several universities:

4088-478: The elimination of typhoid fever, as it eliminated the public-health hazards associated with having horse manure in public streets, which led to a large number of flies, which are vectors of many pathogens, including Salmonella spp. According to statistics from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , the chlorination of drinking water has led to dramatic decreases in the transmission of typhoid fever. Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for

4161-564: The first half of the 20th century due to vaccinations and advances in public sanitation and hygiene. In 1893 attempts were made to chlorinate the water supply in Hamburg , Germany and in 1897 Maidstone , England, was the first town to have its entire water supply chlorinated. In 1905, following an outbreak of typhoid fever, the City of Lincoln, England , instituted permanent water chlorination. The first permanent disinfection of drinking water in

4234-678: The first two years. The vaccine may have some effect for up to seven years. For those at high risk or people traveling to areas where it is common, vaccination is recommended. Other efforts to prevent it include providing clean drinking water , good sanitation , and handwashing . Until an infection is confirmed as cleared, the infected person should not prepare food for others. Typhoid is treated with antibiotics such as azithromycin , fluoroquinolones , or third-generation cephalosporins . Resistance to these antibiotics has been developing, which has made treatment more difficult. In 2015, 12.5 million new typhoid cases were reported. The disease

4307-406: The glass bottles the milk was placed in with contaminated water. Boston had two such cases around the turn of the 20th century. In 1899 there were 24 cases of typhoid traced to a single milkman, whose wife had died of typhoid fever a week before the outbreak. In 1908, J.J. Fallon, who was also a milkman, died of typhoid fever. Following his death and confirmation of the typhoid fever diagnosis,

4380-473: The highest rates of typhoid. Outbreaks are also often reported in sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. In 2000, more than 90% of morbidity and mortality due to typhoid fever occurred in Asia. In the U.S., about 400 cases occur each year, 75% of which are acquired while traveling internationally. Before the antibiotic era, the case fatality rate of typhoid fever was 10–20%. Today, with prompt treatment, it

4453-593: The illegal bushmeat and deforestation trades. The places of worship in the city are predominantly Christian churches: Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Yaoundé ( Catholic Church ), Christian Missionary Fellowship International and Associated Churches (Pentecostal), Evangelical Church of Cameroon ( World Communion of Reformed Churches ), Presbyterian Church in Cameroon ( World Communion of Reformed Churches ), Union of Baptist Churches in Cameroon ( Baptist World Alliance ), Full Gospel Mission Cameroon ( Assemblies of God ). There are also Muslim mosques. Yaoundé features

SECTION 60

#1732771928635

4526-482: The injectable form. An older, killed whole-cell vaccine is still used in countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no longer recommended for use because it has more side effects (mainly pain and inflammation at the site of the injection). To help decrease rates of typhoid fever in developing nations , the World Health Organization (WHO) endorsed the use of

4599-404: The prevention of typhoid: the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline ). Both are efficacious and recommended for travelers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for

4672-590: The river has huge rapids. The first 400 km (250 mi) of the river, between Abong-Mbang and Mbalmayo, are navigable for small boats from April to November. The flow of the river as measured at Déhané in m³/s: The town of Mbalmayo , which has a railhead , lies on the north bank of this river. The towns of Akonolinga and Abong-Mbang also lie on it. Typhoid Among untreated acute cases, 10% will shed bacteria for three months after initial onset of symptoms, and 2–5% will become chronic typhoid carriers. Typhoid fever , also known simply as typhoid ,

4745-411: The same bacterium as Eberth from the spleen of a typhoid victim, and was able to grow the bacterium on solid media. The organism was given names such as Eberth's bacillus, Eberthella Typhi, and Gaffky-Eberth bacillus. Today, the bacillus that causes typhoid fever goes by the scientific name Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi. Most developed countries had declining rates of typhoid fever throughout

4818-673: The serum, they will attach to the brown magnetic particles and settle at the base, while the blue indicator particles remain in the solution, producing a blue color, which means the test is positive. If the serum does not have an antibody in it, the blue particles attach to the brown particles and settle at the bottom, producing a colorless solution, which means the test is negative. Sanitation and hygiene are important to prevent typhoid. It can spread only in environments where human feces can come into contact with food or drinking water. Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid. Industrialization contributed greatly to

4891-578: The site in 1895 permitted a Pallotine mission and religious school at nearby Mvolyé (now a suburb). During World War I , Jaunde was occupied by Belgian troops from the Congo . After Imperial Germany's defeat in that war, France held eastern Cameroon as a mandate of the League of Nations and Yaoundé was chosen to become the capital of the colony in 1922. Douala long remained the more important settlement, but Yaoundé saw rapid growth after 1957 due to

4964-476: The test is negative. The Widal test is time-consuming and prone to significant false positives. It may also be falsely negative in recently infected people. But unlike the Typhidot test, the Widal test quantifies the specimen with titres . Rapid diagnostic tests such as Tubex, Typhidot, and Test-It have shown moderate diagnostic accuracy. Typhidot is based on the presence of specific IgM and IgG antibodies to

5037-468: The total domestic production. However, like many African countries, Cameroon has long suffered from corruption, which dominates almost all the sectors, particularly in the capital city. Oil, gas and mining revenues are rarely reported, which implies massive graft. In addition, there is weak protection of real and intellectual property, and the judicial system is vulnerable to political manipulation. According to Yaoundé City Council data, over 130 floods struck

5110-457: The vaccine combined with a hepatitis A vaccine is also available. Results of a phase 3 trial of typhoid conjugate vaccine (TCV) in December 2019 reported 81% fewer cases among children. The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general. Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice

5183-420: Was occupied by the German botanist Georg August Zenker as an agricultural research station named Jaunde after the local Yaunde or Ewondo people. His settlement served as a base for the area's rubber and ivory trade , purchasing these from the natives in exchange for imported clothing and iron . It was also known in English as Yaunde Station . Major Dominik 's establishment of a military garrison at

5256-430: Was present circulating in the population. Pierre-Charlles-Alexandre Louis also performed case studies and statistical analysis to demonstrate that typhoid was contagious – and that persons who already had the disease seemed to be protected. Afterward, several American doctors confirmed these findings, and then Sir William Jenner convinced any remaining skeptics that typhoid is a specific disease recognizable by lesions in

5329-400: Was reported in 2016 and is now being used widely. This scheme reclassified the nomenclature of H58 to genotype 4.3.1. Unlike other strains of Salmonella , humans are the only known carriers of typhoid. S. enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi is spread by the fecal-oral route from people who are infected and from asymptomatic carriers of the bacterium. An asymptomatic human carrier

#634365