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67-503: A zoological society is a group or organization, often a voluntary association , interested in fields of study related to the animal kingdom. These fields generally include zoology , animal physiology , pathology , veterinary medicine , wildlife conservation , conservation biology , and related topics. Zoological societies are often associated with the operation and/or management of zoos , public aquariums , veterinary hospitals, research institutions, and conservation projects, and with

134-479: A bank account, enter into contracts (rent real estate, hire employees, take out an insurance policy), or sue or be sued. In France , all voluntary associations are non-profit. They may count as unincorporated ( association non-déclarée ) or incorporated ( association déclarée ) and are created in terms of and governed by the Waldeck-Rousseau Act 1901. This is why association loi (de) 1901

201-535: A component of economic history and that the two were inseparably entangled. Those at the LSE believed that economic history warranted its own courses, research agenda and academic chair separated from mainstream economics. In the initial period of the subject's development, the LSE position of separating economic history from economics won out. Many universities in the UK developed independent programmes in economic history rooted in

268-595: A field which may be called new 'new economic history'. Scholars have tended to move away from narrowly quantitative studies toward institutional, social , and cultural history affecting the evolution of economies. The focus of these studies is frequently on "persistence", as past events are linked to present outcomes. Columbia University economist Charles Calomiris argued that this new field showed 'how historical (path-dependent) processes governed changes in institutions and markets.' However, this trend has been criticized, most forcefully by Francesco Boldizzoni , as

335-495: A form of economic imperialism "extending the neoclassical explanatory model to the realm of social relations." Conversely, economists in other specializations have started to write a new kind of economic history which makes use of historical data to understand the present day. A major development in this genre was the publication of Thomas Piketty's Capital in the Twenty-First Century (2013). The book described

402-556: A new field of persistence studies , emphasizing the path-dependent stages of growth. Other notable books on the topic include Kenneth Pomeranz 's The Great Divergence: China, Europe, and the Making of the Modern World Economy (2000) and David S. Landes 's The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some are So Rich and Some So Poor (1998). Since the 2007–2008 financial crisis , scholars have become more interested in

469-565: A number of universities, led by Gustav von Schmoller , developed the historical school of economic history . It argued that there were no universal truths in history, emphasizing the importance of historical context without quantitative analysis. This historical approach dominated German and French scholarship for most of the 20th century. The historical school of economics included other economists such as Max Weber and Joseph Schumpeter who reasoned that careful analysis of human actions, cultural norms, historical context, and mathematical support

536-490: A result, a new academic journal, Capitalism: A Journal of History and Economics , was founded at the University of Pennsylvania under the direction of Marc Flandreau ( University of Pennsylvania ), Julia Ott ( The New School, New York ) and Francesca Trivellato ( Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton ) to widen the scope of the field. The journal's goal is to bring together "historians and social scientists interested in

603-600: A small local residents' association to large associations (often registered charities ) with multimillion- pound turnover that run large-scale business operations (often providing some kind of public service as subcontractors to government departments or local authorities). Voluntary association is also used to refer to political reforms, especially in the context of urbanization, granting individuals greater freedoms to associate in civil society as they wished, or not at all. In many jurisdictions no formalities are necessary to start an association. In some jurisdictions, there

670-537: A stand-alone discipline. Cliometrics , also known as the New Economic History, refers to the systematic use of economic theory and econometric techniques to the study of economic history. The term was originally coined by Jonathan R. T. Hughes and Stanley Reiter and refers to Clio , who was the muse of history and heroic poetry in Greek mythology . One of the most famous cliometric economic historians

737-570: A system of production. In turn, in what was later coined the Brenner debate , Paul Sweezy , a Marxian economist, challenged Dobb's definition of feudalism and its focus only on western Europe . A new field, called "history of capitalism" by researchers engaged in it, has emerged in US history departments since about the year 2000. It includes many topics traditionally associated with the field of economic history, such as insurance, banking and regulation,

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804-439: A wide variety of topics, including equality, finance, technology, labour, and business. It emphasizes historicizing the economy itself, analyzing it as a dynamic entity and attempting to provide insights into the way it is structured and conceived. Using both quantitative data and qualitative sources , economic historians emphasize understanding the historical context in which major economic events take place. They often focus on

871-452: Is Douglass North , who argued that it is the task of economic history to elucidate the historical dimensions of economies through time. Cliometricians argue their approach is necessary because the application of theory is crucial in writing solid economic history, while historians generally oppose this view warning against the risk of generating anachronisms. Early cliometrics was a type of counterfactual history . However, counterfactualism

938-474: Is a co-operative which is usually founded on one person-one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the members. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations ; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate

1005-446: Is a juristic person whose members are not responsible for the financial acts of the association. Any group of persons may, of course, work as an informal association, but in such cases, each person making a transaction in the name of the association takes responsibility for that transaction, just as if it were that individual's personal transaction. There are many countries where the formation of truly independent voluntary associations

1072-412: Is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association. Some jurisdictions require that the association register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This could be a tool of political control or intimidation, and also a way of protecting the economy from fraud . In many such jurisdictions, only a registered association (an incorporated body)

1139-811: Is effectively proscribed by law or where they are theoretically legally permitted, but in practice are persecuted; for example, where membership brings unwelcome attention from police or other state agencies. Voluntary groups are a broad and original form of nonprofit organizations, and have existed since ancient history. In Ancient Greece , for example, there were various organizations ranging from elite clubs of wealthy men ( hetaireiai ) to private religious or professional associations. In preindustrial societies, governmental administrative duties were often handled by voluntary associations such as guilds . In medieval Europe, guilds often controlled towns. Merchant guilds enforced contracts through embargoes and sanctions on their members, and also adjudicated disputes. However, by

1206-518: Is in force in South Australia , allows for the creation of a legal entity able to buy and sell land and in general, enter into legally binding contracts. Many clubs and societies begin life as an unincorporated body and seek to attain incorporated status to protect its members from legal liability and in many cases to seek government financial assistance only available to an incorporated body. Clubs and societies wishing to incorporate must meet

1273-542: Is intricately connected with economic history, as it explores the growth of economies with different technologies, innovations, and institutions. Studying economic growth has been popular for years among economists and historians who have sought to understand why some economies have grown faster than others. Some of the early texts in the field include Walt Whitman Rostow 's The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1971) which described how advanced economies grow after overcoming certain hurdles and advancing to

1340-490: Is not a handmaiden of economics but a distinct field of scholarship. Economic history was a scholarly discipline long before it became cliometrics. Its practitioners were economists and historians studying the histories of economies... The new economic history, or cliometrics, formalized economic history in a manner similar to the injection of mathematical models and statistics into the rest of economics. The relationship between economic history, economics and history has long been

1407-483: Is subjoined to their name, except in the Alsace - Moselle area, which is governed by local law in this regard (the area was German in 1901), and are therefore called association loi (de) 1908 . If the association responding to defined criteria, like social or medical help, for example, they can be declared "public utility association" ( association d'utilité publique ) by French authorities. Associations created under

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1474-529: Is to be treated under the laws. In the United States, voluntary associations which were incorporated were "pre-eminent" in collective action. In California , during the 1980s, then Los Angeles County district attorney Ira Reiner decided to use California's unincorporated associations law to attack street gangs and the habit of their members of tagging graffiti in public spaces, in an attempt to abate vandalism and to recover cleanup costs. He sued

1541-454: Is true of trade unions . Because of this, some people prefer the term common-interest association to describe groups which form out of a common interest, although this term is not widely used or understood. Voluntary associations may be incorporated or unincorporated ; for example, in the US, unions gained additional powers by incorporating. In the UK, the terms voluntary association or voluntary organisation cover every type of group from

1608-616: The English trust law case Conservative and Unionist Central Office v Burrell (1981): "unincorporated association" [means] two or more persons bound together for one or more common purposes, not being business purposes, by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules which identify in whom control of it and its funds rests and upon what terms and which can be joined or left at will. In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality , and few members of

1675-478: The Ministry of Justice . Under English law , an unincorporated association consists of two or more members bound by the rules of a society which has, at some point in time, been founded. Several theories have been proposed as to the way that such associations hold rights. A transfer may be considered to have been made to the association's members directly as joint tenants or tenants in common . Alternatively,

1742-444: The University of Chicago and Yale University . Despite the pessimistic view on the state of the discipline espoused by many of its practitioners, economic history remains an active field of social scientific inquiry. Indeed, it has seen something of a resurgence in interest since 2000, perhaps driven by research conducted at universities in continental Europe rather than the UK and the US. The overall number of economic historians in

1809-494: The 1800s, merchant guilds had largely disappeared. Economic historians have debated the precise role that merchant guilds played in premodern society and economic growth. In the United Kingdom, craft guilds were more successful than merchant guilds and formed livery companies which exerted significant influence on society. A standard definition of an unincorporated association was given by Lord Justice Lawton in

1876-402: The 1901 act have a significant amount of freedom in their internal operation, such as management or authorized members. The German Civil Code sets out different rights and rules for an unincorporated association ( nicht eingetragener Verein ) with legal identity ( Vereine , art. 21–79 BGB ) versus an incorporated association ( eingetragener Verein ) with full legal personality , which

1943-414: The 21st Century , by Jean-Philippe Delsol, Nicolas Lecaussin, Emmanuel Martin (2017). One economist argued that Piketty's book was "Nobel-Prize worthy" and noted that it had changed the global discussion on how economic historians study inequality. It has also sparked new conversations in the disciplines of public policy. In addition to the mainstream in economic history, there is a parallel development in

2010-811: The Associations Law, 1980. An amutah is a body corporate, though not a company. The amutah is successor to the Ottoman Association which predated the State of Israel, and was established by the now-superseded 1909 Ottoman Law on Associations, based on the French law of 1901. An amutah must register with the Rasham Ha’amutot ('Registrar of Amutot'), under the purview of the Rashut Hata’agidim ('Corporations Authority') of

2077-485: The Crown as bona vacantia . This conclusion has also been suggested where the association dissolves because only one member remains, although this has been doubted by some commentators who believe the last members should be entitled to the rights. Scots law on unincorporated associations is essentially the same as English law. Each state sets its own laws as to what constitutes an unincorporated association and how it

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2144-486: The LSE model. Indeed, the Economic History Society had its inauguration at LSE in 1926 and the University of Cambridge eventually established its own economic history programme. In the United States, the field of economic history was largely subsumed into other fields of economics following the cliometric revolution of the 1960s. To many it became seen as a form of applied economics rather than

2211-630: The association more protection against liability than that given to either stockholders of corporations or members of limited liability companies . This was noted in the case of International News Service vs Associated Press , because the members of the AP are not liable for damages for the organization's actions unless the association as a whole approved it. In Texas , state law has statutes concerning unincorporated non-profit associations that allow unincorporated associations that meet certain criteria to operate as entities independent of their members, with

2278-560: The association usually enjoy limited liability . However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes: for example, in the United Kingdom an unincorporated association is assessable to corporation tax . However, because of their lack of legal personality, legacies to unincorporated associations are sometimes subject to general common law prohibitions against purpose trusts . Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships . A special kind of partnership

2345-411: The contributors, unless they can be shown to have renounced their right to such a trust in their favour. If the rights are held subject to contract, then they will be divided among the surviving membership upon dissolution, according to the terms of the contracts inter se or an implied term according to contribution. If, as a result of this contract or statute, no member can claim, the rights will pass to

2412-676: The economics and history disciplines: 'An adequate equipment with two skills, that of the historian and the economist, is not easily acquired, but experience shows that it is both necessary and possible'. Other related academic journals have broadened the lens with which economic history is studied. These interdisciplinary journals include the Business History Review , European Review of Economic History , Enterprise and Society , and Financial History Review . The International Economic History Association , an association of close to 50 member organizations, recognizes some of

2479-435: The emerging field of economic history. The discipline existed alongside long-standing fields such as political history , religious history , and military history as one that focused on humans' interactions with 'visible happenings'. He continued, '[economic history] primarily and unless expressly extended, the history of actual human practice with respect to the material basis of life. The visible happenings with regard-to use

2546-433: The field influenced by Karl Marx and Marxian economics . Marx used historical analysis to interpret the role of class and class as a central issue in history. He debated with the "classical" economists (a term he coined), including Adam Smith and David Ricardo . In turn, Marx's legacy in economic history has been to critique the findings of neoclassical economists. Marxist analysis also confronts economic determinism ,

2613-406: The funds transferred may be considered to have been under the terms of a private purpose trust . Many purpose trusts fail for want of a beneficiary and this may therefore result in the gift failing. However, some purpose trusts are valid, and, accordingly, some cases have decided that the rights associated with unincorporated associations are held on this basis. The dominant theory, however, is that

2680-674: The institutional dynamics of systems of production , labor , and capital , as well as the economy's impact on society, culture, and language. Scholars of the discipline may approach their analysis from the perspective of different schools of economic thought , such as mainstream economics , Austrian economics , Marxian economics , the Chicago school of economics , and Keynesian economics . Economic history has several sub-disciplines. Historical methods are commonly applied in financial and business history , which overlap with areas of social history such as demographic and labor history . In

2747-486: The issues with economic history. As University of Chicago professor of history Jonathan Levy states, "modern economic history began with industrialization and urbanization, and, even then, environmental considerations were subsidiary, if not nonexistent." Scholars have critiqued the history of capitalism because it does not focus on systems of production, circulation, and distribution. Some have criticized its lack of social scientific methods and its ideological biases. As

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2814-434: The latter, around tendencies. The former is primarily economic history; the latter is primarily economic science. Both sorts of studies are proper and important. Each helps the other. The panic of 1873 can only be understood in light of the various tendencies involved—deflation and other; and deflation can only be understood in the light of various historical manifestations—1873 and other. The past three decades have witnessed

2881-588: The law treats as partnerships ( Gesellschaften , art. 705–740 BGB ). Associations can be for-profit ( wirtschaftlicher Verein ) or non-for-profit ( Idealverein ). Associations which pursue a public purpose can apply for tax exemptions ( gemeinnütziger Verein ). The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Article 20 Article 11 of the European Convention on Human Rights also protects

2948-471: The material and intellectual aspects of modern economic life." The first journal specializing in the field of economic history was The Economic History Review , founded in 1927, as the main publication of the Economic History Society . The first journal featured a publication by Professor Sir William Ashley , the first Professor of Economic History in the English-speaking world, who described

3015-565: The next stage in development. Another economic historian, Alexander Gerschenkron , complicated this theory with works on how economies develop in non-Western countries, as discussed in Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective: A Book of Essays (1962). A more recent work is Daron Acemoglu and James A. Robinson 's Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty (2012) which pioneered

3082-667: The old formula-to "the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth" form our wide enough field'. Later, the Economic History Association established another academic journal, The Journal of Economic History , in 1941 as a way of expanding the discipline in the United States . The first president of the Economic History Association, Edwin F. Gay , described the aim of economic history as to provide new perspectives in

3149-474: The pattern of modern textbooks – had a mind that was entirely unhistorical." There were several advantages in combining economics and history according to Toynbee. To begin with, it improved economic understanding. "We see abstract propositions in a new light when studying them in relation to historical facts. Propositions become more vivid and truthful." Meanwhile, studying history with economics makes history easier to understand. Economics teaches us to look out for

3216-558: The political dimension of business, and the impact of capitalism on the middle classes, the poor and women and minorities. The field has particularly focused on the contribution of slavery to the rise of the US economy in the nineteenth century. The field utilizes the existing research of business history , but has sought to make it more relevant to the concerns of history departments in the United States, including by having limited or no discussion of individual business enterprises. Historians of capitalism have countered these critiques, citing

3283-525: The present. It exerts a worldwide influence through its journal Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales . Treating economic history as a discrete academic discipline has been a contentious issue for many years. Academics at the London School of Economics (LSE) and the University of Cambridge had numerous disputes over the separation of economics and economic history in the interwar era . Cambridge economists believed that pure economics involved

3350-487: The provisions of the relevant state act and lodge their constitution with the corresponding state government authority. In Israel , many non-profit organizations (NPOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are established as registered nonprofit associations (Hebrew amutah , plural amutot ) (some are established as public benefit companies (Hebrew Chevrah LeTo’elet Hatzibur ) not to be confused with public benefit corporations). Amutot are regulated by

3417-680: The publication of scientific journals and periodicals . The first such society was the Zoological Society of London , founded in 1826. Zoological society may refer to: Voluntary association All such associations reflect freedom of association in ultimate terms (members may choose whether to join or leave), although membership is not necessarily voluntary in the sense that one's employment may effectively require it via occupational closure . For example, in order for particular associations to function effectively, they might need to be mandatory or at least strongly encouraged, as

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3484-520: The relationship between economics and economic history in his " Debt-Deflation Theory of Great Depressions ": The study of dis-equilibrium may proceed in either of two ways. We may take as our unit for study an actual historical case of great dis-equilibrium, such as, say, the panic of 1873; or we may take as our unit for study any constituent tendency, such as, say, deflation, and discover its general laws, relations to, and combinations with, other tendencies. The former study revolves around events, or facts;

3551-427: The right facts in reading history and makes matters such as introducing enclosures, machinery, or new currencies more intelligible. Economics also teaches careful deductive reasoning. "The habits of mind it instils are even more valuable than the knowledge of principles it gives. Without these habits, the mass of their materials can overwhelm students of historical facts." In late-nineteenth-century Germany, scholars at

3618-470: The right to freedom of assembly and association. Article 11 – Freedom of assembly and association Economic history Economic history is the study of history using methodological tools from economics or with a special attention to economic phenomena. Research is conducted using a combination of historical methods , statistical methods and the application of economic theory to historical situations and institutions . The field can encompass

3685-513: The right to own property, make contracts, sue and be sued, with limited liability for their officers and members. Certain civil-law systems classify an association as a special form of contractual relationship. Under the Quebec Civil Code an association is categorized as a type of statutory specific contract set forth in a constitution. An association can become incorporated with its own legal identity so that it may, e.g., open

3752-439: The rights are transferred to the members or officers absolutely, perhaps on trust for the members, but are importantly bound by contracts inter se . Accordingly, on dissolution, the distribution of these rights depends on how they were held. A purpose trust may by its nature survive the dissolution of the association, or it may not. If it fails as a result of the dissolution, then the rights will be held on resulting trust for

3819-723: The rise in wealth and income inequality since the 18th century, arguing that large concentrations of wealth lead to social and economic instability. Piketty also advocated a system of global progressive wealth taxes to correct rising inequality. The book was selected as a New York Times best seller and received numerous awards. The book was well received by some of the world's major economists, including Paul Krugman , Robert Solow , and Ben Bernanke . Books in response to Piketty's book include After Piketty: The Agenda for Economics and Inequality , by Heather Boushey, J. Bradford DeLong, and Marshall Steinbaum (eds.) (2017), Pocket Piketty by Jesper Roine (2017), and Anti-Piketty: Capital for

3886-421: The street gangs by name, with cases titled such as City of Los Angeles v. The Bloods and City of Los Angeles v. The Crips , which then allowed the city to go after any member of the street gang, as a member of the unincorporated association being sued, for damages resulting from graffiti tagging involving that gang's name,. New York state law regarding unincorporated associations actually gives members of

3953-540: The sub-discipline of cliometrics , economists use quantitative ( econometric ) methods. In history of capitalism , historians explain economic historical issues and processes from a historical point of view. Arnold Toynbee made the case for combining economics and history in his study of the Industrial Revolution , saying, "I believe economics today is much too dissociated from history. Smith and Malthus had historical minds. However, Ricardo – who set

4020-744: The subject of intense discussion, and the debates of recent years echo those of early contributors. There has long been a school of thought among economic historians that splits economic history—the study of how economic phenomena evolved in the past—from historical economics—testing the generality of economic theory using historical episodes. US economic historian Charles P. Kindleberger explained this position in his 1990 book Historical Economics: Art or Science? . Economic historian Robert Skidelsky ( University of Cambridge ) argued that economic theory often employs ahistorical models and methodologies that do not take into account historical context. Yale University economist Irving Fisher already wrote in 1933 on

4087-413: The theory that economic relationships are the foundation of political and societal institutions. Marx abstracted the idea of a "capitalist mode of production" as a way of identifying the transition from feudalism to capitalism . This has influenced some scholars, such as Maurice Dobb , to argue that feudalism declined because of peasants' struggles for freedom and the growing inefficiency of feudalism as

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4154-537: The vast majority of economic historians coming through the British higher education system today, but do so as part of economics or history degrees. Meanwhile, there have never been specialist economic history graduate programs at universities anywhere in the US. However, economic history remains a special field component of leading economics PhD programs, including University of California, Berkeley , Harvard University , Northwestern University , Princeton University ,

4221-556: The way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, constitution, regulations, or agreement of association. In most states and territories in Australia , a similar set of laws allows not-for-profit associations to become legal entities with a limit to the liability of their members. An example of such a law, the Associations Incorporation Act 1985 that

4288-482: The widespread closure of separate economic history departments and programmes in the UK and the integration of the discipline into either history or economics departments. Only the London School of Economics ( LSE ) retains a separate economic history department and stand-alone undergraduate and graduate programme in economic history. Cambridge , Glasgow , LSE , Oxford , Queen's , and Warwick together train

4355-497: The world is estimated at 10,400, with Japan and China as well as the U.K and the U.S. ranking highest in numbers. Some less developed countries, however, are not sufficiently integrated in the world economic history community, among others, Senegal, Brazil and Vietnam. Part of the growth in economic history is driven by the continued interest in big policy-relevant questions on the history of economic growth and development. MIT economist Peter Temin noted that development economics

4422-518: Was key to historical analysis. The approach was spread to Great Britain by William Ashley ( University of Oxford ) and dominated British economic history for much of the 20th century. Britain's first professor in the subject was George Unwin at the University of Manchester . Meanwhile, in France, economic history was heavily influenced by the Annales School from the early 20th century to

4489-526: Was not its distinctive feature; it combined neoclassical economics with quantitative methods in order to explain human choices based on constraints. Some have argued that cliometrics had its heyday in the 1960s and 1970s and that it is now neglected by economists and historians. In response to North and Robert Fogel 's Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1993, Harvard University economist (and future Nobel winner) Claudia Goldin argued: Economic history

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