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87-625: Sultan Al-Zahir Baybars , also known as Rukn Uddin Baybrus (full name: al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baibars al-Bunduqdari ) was a political and military leader of major historical importance. He played an important role in the establishment of a new mamluk -based regime in Cairo that would rule Egypt and Syria for a long period known as the Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517). After playing

174-564: A maqsura , denoting not only the place where the imam led prayers but also where some official functions, such as the dispensation of justice, were carried out. In the Mosque of the Prophet ( Al-Masjid al-Nabawi ) in Medina , a large block of stone initially marked the north wall which was oriented towards Jerusalem (the first qibla), but this was moved to the south wall in the second year of

261-533: A Dar al-Hadith (school for teaching the sayings of the Prophet ), and the sultan's mausoleum (called a turba ). The complex included a monumental portal with a broad canopy of stone-carved muqarnas (honeycomb or stalactite-like forms) culminating in a shell-like hood, considered one of the most accomplished examples of its kind in Syria. The portal and exterior of the building also demonstrates alternating layers of dark and light stone, known as ablaq masonry. Today,

348-524: A mihrab to have originally signified a throne room. The term was subsequently used by the Islamic prophet Muhammad to denote his own private prayer room. The room additionally provided access to the adjacent mosque, and Muhammad entered the mosque through this room. This original meaning of mihrab  – i.e. as a special room in the house – continues to be preserved in some forms of Judaism where mihrabs are rooms used for private worship. In

435-617: A central role in repelling the Mongol advance at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 (often cited as a turning point in history) he rose to the position of sultan . During his reign, he undertook a series of effective campaigns against the remaining Crusader states in the Levant , conquering a number of important cities and fortresses such as Antioch and the famous Krak des Chevaliers , which paved

522-564: A combination of diplomacy and military action, allowing the Mamluks of Egypt to greatly expand their empire. In his native Turkic language , Baybars' name means "great panther" or "lord panther" (see also Wiktionary: bay "rich person, noble" + pars "leopard, panther"). Possibly based on the Turkic meaning of his name, Baybars used the panther as his heraldic blazon , and placed it on both coins and buildings. The lion/panther used on

609-501: A common feature of Late Antique architecture prior to the rise of Islam, either as hollow spaces or to house statues . The mihrab niche could have also been related to the recessed area or alcove that sheltered the throne in some royal audience halls. The next earliest concave mihrab to be documented is the one that was added to the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus when it was built by Al-Walid between 706 and 715. This

696-612: A desire to be buried near the town of Darayya , but his son judged that he should be buried in a more prestigious location near the great mosque and near the tombs of illustrious Ayyubid sultans, including the Mausoleum of Salah ad-Din . On al-Sa'id's orders, the governor of Damascus, emir Aydamur, purchased a house opposite the 'Adiliyya Madrasa , in the al-Amara neighbourhood near the Great Umayyad Mosque . The house, called Dar al-'Aqiqi , had originally belonged to

783-512: A force from the army from Hama to reinforce his left. The large Mamluk numbers were able to overwhelm the Mongol force, who instead of retreating dismounted from their horses. Some Mongols were able to escape and took up positions on the hills. Once they became surrounded they once again dismounted, and fought to the death. During the celebration of victory, Baybars said that "How can I be happy? Before I had thought that I and my servants would defeat

870-737: A letter to the garrison, supposedly from the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller in Tripoli, Hugues de Revel , which granted permission for them to surrender. The garrison capitulated and the Sultan spared their lives. The new owners of the castle undertook repairs, focused mainly on the outer ward. The Hospitaller chapel was converted to a mosque and two mihrabs were added to the interior. Baybars then turned his attention to Tripoli, but he interrupted his siege there to call

957-439: A niche be made to designate the qibla wall (which identifies the direction of Mecca), which became the first concave mihrab niche. This type of mihrab was called miḥrāb mujawwaf in historical Arabic texts . The origin of this architectural feature has been debated by scholars. Some trace it to the apse of Christian churches , others to the alcove shrines or niches of Buddhist architecture . Niches were already

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1044-663: A night raid. Baybars, however, manage to suppress the rebellion quickly as he surrounded and arrested them all. Al- Kurani and another rebel leaders were executed (crucified) in Bab Zuweila After suppressing the revolt of Sinjar, Baybars then managed to deal with the Ayyubids , while quietly eliminating the prince of Kerak. Ayyubids such as Al-Ashraf Musa, Emir of Homs and the Ayyubid Emir Dynasty of Hama Al-Mansur Muhammad II , who had earlier staved off

1131-527: A part in the Arabic literary renaissance that was ongoing in Syria in that period. In 1919 the " Arab Academy was charged with the supervision of the al-Zahiriyya Library. … Its collection consisted at that time of the surviving manuscripts from different small libraries in Syria. … The collection grew from 2,465 manuscripts to 22,000 volumes between 1919 and 1945." In 1949 a legal deposit law decreed that two copies of every work published in Syria be deposited in

1218-617: A popular Arabic romance recording his battles and achievements. He has a heroic status in Kazakhstan , as well as in Egypt , Palestine , Lebanon and Syria . Al-Madrassa al-Zahiriyya is the school built adjacent to his Mausoleum in Damascus . The Az-Zahiriyah Library has a wealth of manuscripts in various branches of knowledge to this day. Mihrab Mihrab ( Arabic : محراب , miḥrāb , pl. محاريب maḥārīb )

1305-566: A short relationship and after that they got married. There are conflicting stories of whether Aisha returned with Baybars to Egypt or was martyred in Tripoli. One of Baibar's wives was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Nogay at-Tatari. Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Giray at-Tatari. Another wife was the daughter of Amir Sayf ad-Din Tammaji. Another wife was Iltutmish Khatun. She

1392-465: A subject of the Mongol Empire, while at the same time paying tribute to the Mamluks. This isolated Antioch and Tripoli, led by Hethum's son-in-law, Prince Bohemond VI . After successfully conquering Cilicila, Baybars in 1267 settled his unfinished business with Acre, and continued the extermination of remaining crusader garrisons in the following years. In 1268, he besieged Antioch , capturing

1479-597: A truce in May 1271. The fall of Antioch had led to the brief Ninth Crusade , led by Prince Edward of England , who arrived in Acre in May 1271 and attempted to ally himself with the Mongols against Baybars. So Baybars declared a truce with Tripoli, as well as with Edward, who was never able to capture any territory from Baybars anyway. According to some reports, Baybars tried to have Edward assassinated with poison, but Edward survived

1566-623: A vassal state of the Mongols and had participated in attacks against Islamic targets in Damascus and Syria. In 1263, Baybars laid siege to Acre , the capital of the remnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem , although the siege was abandoned when he sacked Nazareth instead. He used siege engines to defeat the Crusaders in battles such as the Fall of Arsuf from 21 March to 30 April. After breaking into

1653-514: Is a niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the qibla , the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca towards which Muslims should face when praying. The wall in which a mihrab appears is thus the " qibla wall". The minbar , which is the raised platform from which an imam (leader of prayer) addresses the congregation, is located to the right of the mihrab . The origin of the word miḥrāb

1740-467: Is complicated, and multiple explanations have been proposed by different sources and scholars. It may come from Old South Arabian (possibly Sabaic ) 𐩣𐩢𐩧𐩨 mḥrb meaning a certain part of a palace , as well as "part of a temple where 𐩩𐩢𐩧𐩨 tḥrb (a certain type of visions) is obtained," from the root word 𐩢𐩧𐩨 ḥrb "to perform a certain religious ritual (which is compared to combat or fighting and described as an overnight retreat) in

1827-549: Is no empty space in-between the art. The mihrab in the Great Mosque of Cordoba is a highly decorated piece of art that draws one's attention. It is a contribution made by Al-Hakam II that is not just used for prayer. It is used as a place of convergence in the mosque, where visitors could be amazed by its beauty and gilded designs. The entrance is covered in mosaics "which links to the Byzantium tradition, produced by

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1914-462: Is of somewhat lesser quality, suggesting that this skill was in decline compared to earlier periods. The mihrab (a wall niche symbolizing the direction of prayer ) also features an elaborate composition of marble mosaic paneling forming geometric and foliated patterns. The muqarnas portal (the earliest example of which is the Bimaristan of Nur al-Din ), the marble dadoes, and (to a lesser extent)

2001-549: The hijra period (2 AH or 624 CE ), when the orientation of the qibla was changed towards Mecca. This mihrab also marked the spot where Muhammad would plant his lance ( 'anaza or ḥarba ) prior to leading prayers. During the reign of the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik (Al-Walid I, r. 705–715), the Mosque of the Prophet was renovated and the governor ( wāli ) of Medina, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz , ordered that

2088-548: The Abbasids to the Great Mosque of al-Mansur in Baghdad. It was then moved again to the al-Khassaki Mosque built in the 17th century, where it was later found and transferred to the museum. This mihrab features a combination of Classical or Late Antique motifs, with the niche flanked by two spiral columns and crowned by a scalloped shell-like hood. Eventually, the niche came to be universally understood to identify

2175-645: The Ark in the inner sanctuary )"). Arab lexicographers traditionally derive the word from the Arabic root ح ر ب (Ḥ-R-B) relating to "war, fighting or anger," (which, though cognate with the South Arabian root, does not however carry any relation to religious rituals) thus leading some to interpret it to mean a "fortress", or "place of battle (with Satan )," the latter due to mihrabs being private prayer chambers. The latter interpretation though bears similarity to

2262-610: The Bahri dynasty , succeeding Qutuz . He was one of the commanders of the Egyptian forces that inflicted a defeat on the Seventh Crusade of King Louis IX of France . He also led the vanguard of the Egyptian army at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, which marked the first substantial defeat of the Mongol army and is considered a turning point in history. The reign of Baybars marked the start of an age of Mamluk dominance in

2349-518: The Battle of Dongola . David fled upstream the Nile, eventually entering al-Abwab in the south, which, previously being Alodia's northernmost province, had by this period become a kingdom of its own. The king of al-Abwab, however, handed David over to Baybars, who had him executed. Baybars then completed his conquest of Nubia, including the Medieval lower Nubia which was ruled by Banu Kanz . Under

2436-625: The Black Sea , or Dasht-i Kipchak at the time. There is a discrepancy in Ibn Taghrībirdī 's dating of his birth, since he says it took place in 625 AH (12 December 1227 – 29 November 1228) and also that Baybars was about 24 years old in 1247, which would put his birth closer to 1223. He belonged to the Barli tribe. According to a fellow Cuman and eyewitness, Badr al-Din Baysari, the Barli fled

2523-610: The Eastern Mediterranean and solidified the durability of their military system. He managed to pave the way for the end of the Crusader presence in the Levant and reinforced the union of Egypt and Syria as the region's pre-eminent Muslim state, able to fend off threats from both Crusaders and Mongols, and even managed to subdue the kingdom of Makuria , which was famous for being unconquerable by previous Muslim empire invasion attempts. As sultan, Baybars also engaged in

2610-505: The Qur'an , the word (when in conjunction with the definite article) is mostly used to indicate the Holy of Holies . The term is used, for example, in the verse "then he [i.e. Zechariah ] came forth to his people from the mihrab " . The earliest mihrabs generally consisted of a simple stripe of paint or a flat stone panel in the qibla wall. They may have originally had functions similar to

2697-559: The Seventh Crusade lamented: Rage and sorrow are seated in my heart...so firmly that I scarce dare to stay alive. It seems that God wishes to support the Turks to our loss...ah, lord God...alas, the realm of the East has lost so much that it will never be able to rise up again. They will make a Mosque of Holy Mary's convent, and since the theft pleases her Son, who should weep at this, we are forced to comply as well...Anyone who wishes to fight

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2784-576: The Templar knights, which had been conquered by Saladin in 1188 but returned to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1240. Baybars promised the knights safe passage to the Christian town of Acre if they surrendered their fortress. Badly outnumbered, the knights agreed. Upon surrender, Baybars broke his promise and massacred the entire Templar garrison . On capturing Safed, Baybars did not raze the fortress to

2871-403: The bridge built by Baybars near al-Ludd (today's Lod ) plays with a rat, which may be interpreted to represent Baybars' Crusader enemies. Baybars was described as a tall man with olive skin and blue eyes . He had broad shoulders, slim legs, and a powerful voice. It was observed that he had cataract in one eye. Baybars was a Kipchak thought to be born in the steppe region north of

2958-576: The mihrab does not follow the qibla direction, such as is the Masjid al-Qiblatayn , or the Mosque of the Two Qiblas, where Muhammad received the command to change the direction of prayer from Jerusalem to Mecca, thus it had two prayer niches. In 1987 the mosque was renovated, the old prayer niche facing Jerusalem was removed, and the one facing Mecca was left. Mihrabs are a relevant part of Islamic culture and mosques. Since they are used to indicate

3045-509: The mihrab of the Companions of the Prophet in the eastern half and the great mihrab at the end of the transept". The mihrab is decorated similarly to the rest of the mosque in golden vines and vegetal imagery. The lamp that once hung in the mihrab has been theorized as the motif of a pearl, due to the indications that dome of the mihrab has scalloped edges. There have been other mosques that have mihrabs similar to this that follow

3132-426: The qibla wall, and so came to be adopted as a feature in other mosques. A sign was no longer necessary. Today, mihrabs vary in size, but are usually ornately decorated. It was common for mihrabs to be flanked with pairs of candlesticks, though they would not have lit candles. In Ottoman mosques, these were made of brass, bronze or beaten copper and their bases had a distinctive bell shape. In exceptional cases,

3219-453: The 𐩣𐩢𐩧𐩨 mḥrb of the temple." It may also possibly be related to Ethiopic ምኵራብ məkʷrab "temple, sanctuary," whose equivalent in Sabaic is 𐩣𐩫𐩧𐩨 mkrb of the same meaning, from the root word 𐩫𐩧𐩨 krb "to dedicate" (cognate with Akkadian 𒅗𒊒𒁍 karābu "to bless" and related to Hebrew כְּרוּב kerūḇ " cherub (either of the heavenly creatures that bound

3306-518: The Abbasid refugee Abu al-Qasim Ahmad, the uncle of the last Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim , arrived in Cairo in 1261, Baybars had him proclaimed caliph as al-Mustansir II and duly received investiture as sultan from him. Unfortunately, al-Mustansir II was killed by the Mongols during an ill-advised expedition to recapture Baghdad from the Mongols later in the same year. In 1262, another Abbasid, allegedly

3393-579: The Battle of Elbistan. Baybars told him he was leaving for Sivas to mislead Pervâne and the Mongols as to his true destination. Baybars also sent Taybars al-Waziri with a force to raid the Armenian town of al-Rummana, whose inhabitants had hidden the Mongols earlier. Baybars died in Damascus on 1 July 1277, when he was 53 years old. His demise has been the subject of some academic speculation. Many sources agree that he died from drinking poisoned kumis that

3480-613: The Mamluks in Nubian affairs. A punitive Mamluk expedition was sent in response, but did not pass beyond the second cataract. Three years later the Makurians attacked and destroyed Aswan, but this time, Baybars responded with a well-equipped army setting off from Cairo in early 1276, accompanied by a cousin of king David named Mashkouda or Shekanda. The Mamluks defeated the Nubians in three battles at Gebel Adda, Meinarti and finally at

3567-596: The Mongol threat, were permitted to continue their rule in exchange for their recognizing Baybars' authority as Sultan. After the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq was overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 when they conquered and sacked Baghdad , the Muslim world lacked a caliph , a theoretically supreme leader who had sometimes used his office to endow distant Muslim rulers with legitimacy by sending them writs of investiture. Thus, when

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3654-469: The Mongol's Golden Horde to Egypt resulted in a significant number of Mongols accepting Islam. Baybars was a popular ruler in the Muslim world who had defeated the crusaders in three campaigns, and the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut which many scholars deem of great macro-historical importance. In order to support his military campaigns, Baybars commissioned arsenals, warships and cargo vessels. He

3741-556: The Mongols, but my left wing was beaten by them. Only Allah helped us". The possibility of a new Mongol army convinced Baybars to return to Syria, since he was far away from his bases and supply line. As the Mamluk army returned to Syria the commander of the Mamluk vanguard, Izz al-Din Aybeg al-Shaykhi, deserted to the Mongols. Pervâne sent a letter to Baybars asking him to delay his departure. Baybars chastised him for not aiding him during

3828-625: The Muslim world did not take these caliphs seriously, as they were mere instruments of the sultans, they still lent a certain legitimation as well as a decorative element to their rule. As sultan, Baybars engaged in a lifelong struggle against the Crusader kingdoms in Syria , in part because the Christians had aided the Mongols. He started with the Principality of Antioch , which had become

3915-570: The Turks is mad, for Jesus Christ does not fight them any more. They have conquered, they will conquer. For every day they drive us down, knowing that God, who was awake, sleeps now, and Muhammad waxes powerful. Baybars also played an important role in bringing the Mongols to Islam . He developed strong ties with the Mongols of the Golden Horde and took steps for the Golden Horde Mongols to travel to Egypt . The arrival of

4002-452: The accord and invade Egypt. Aybak wrote to an-Nassir Yusuf warning him of the danger of these Mamluks who took refuge in Syria, and agreed to grant him their territorial domains on the coast, but an-Nasir Yusuf refused to expel them and instead returned to them the domains which Aybak had granted. In 1255, an-Nasir Yusuf sent new forces to the Egyptian border, this time with many of Aktai's Mamluks, among them Baybars, and Qalawun al-Alfi, but he

4089-419: The area had fled to the castle for safety and were kept in the outer ward. As soon as Baybars arrived, he began erecting mangonels , powerful siege weapons which he would turn on the castle. According to Ibn Shaddad , two days later the first line of defences was captured by the besiegers; he was probably referring to a walled suburb outside the castle's entrance. After a lull of ten days, the besiegers conveyed

4176-613: The armies of the Mongols , intending to settle in the Second Bulgarian Empire (named in the sources Wallachia ). They crossed the Black Sea from either Crimea or Alania , where they had arrived in Bulgaria in about 1242. In the meantime, the Mongols invaded Bulgaria , including the regions where the Cuman refugees had recently settled. Both Baybars, who witnessed his parents being massacred, and Baysari were among

4263-513: The assassination because he expected to be rewarded with the governorship of Aleppo for his military success, but Qutuz, fearing his ambition, refused to give him the post. Baybars succeeded Qutuz as Sultan of Egypt. Soon after Baybars had ascended to the Sultanate, his authority was confirmed without any serious resistance, except from Alam al-Din Sinjar al-Halabi , another Mamluk amir who

4350-535: The attempt and returned home in 1272. In 1265 a Mamluk army allegedly raided Makuria as far south as Dongola while also expanding southwards along the African Red Sea coast, thus threatening the Nubians. In 1272 king David marched east and attacked the port town of Aidhab , located on an important pilgrimage route to Mecca . The Nubian army destroyed the town, causing “a blow to the very heart of Islam”. This initiated several decades of intervention by

4437-486: The captives during the invasion and were sold into slavery in the Sultanate of Rum at the slave market in Sivas . Afterwards, he was sold in Hama to 'Alā' al-Dīn Īdīkīn al-Bunduqārī  [ de ] , an Egyptian of high rank, who brought him to Cairo . In 1247, al-Bunduqārī was arrested and the sultan of Egypt, As-Salih Ayyub , confiscated his slaves, including Baybars. Al-Sha'rani (d. 973/1565) counted him among Ibn 'Arabi 's students. In 1250, he supported

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4524-508: The city on 18 May. Baybars had promised to spare the lives of the inhabitants, but he broke his promise and had the city razed, killing or enslaving much of the population after the surrender. prompting the fall of the Principality of Antioch . The massacre of men, women, and children at Antioch "was the single greatest massacre of the entire crusading era." Priests had their throats slit inside their churches, and women were sold into slavery. Then he continued to Jaffa , which belonged to Guy,

4611-422: The craftsmen sent by Emperor Nicephorus II. These mosaics extend along the voussoirs with a geometric and plant-based design, but also in the inscriptions which record verses from the Koran". This mihrab is also a bit different from a normal mihrab due to its scale. It takes up a whole room instead of just a niche. This style of mihrab set a standard for other mihrab construction in the region. The use of

4698-409: The defeat of the Seventh Crusade of Louis IX of France in two major battles. The first was the Battle of Al Mansurah , where he employed an ingenious strategy in ordering the opening of a gate to let the crusader knights enter the town; the crusaders rushed into the town that they thought was deserted to find themselves trapped inside. They were besieged from all directions by the Egyptian forces and

4785-479: The direction for prayer, they serve as an important focal point in the mosque. They are usually decorated with ornamental detail that can be geometric designs, linear patterns, or calligraphy. This ornamentation also serves a religious purpose. The calligraphy decoration on the mihrabs are usually from the Qur'an and are devotions to God so that God's word reaches the people. Common designs amongst mihrabs are geometric foliage that are close together so that there

4872-430: The father of Salah ad-Din (Saladin), and Salah ad-Din himself had spent part of his childhood there. It was remodeled into a madrasa and funerary complex. When al-Sa'id himself died in 1280, he was buried in the same mausoleum as his father. Construction of the complex began in 1277 but did not finish until later. It was still unfinished when al-Sa'id died and was buried here in 1280, and the new sultan al-Mansur Qalawun

4959-430: The great-great-great-grandson of the Caliph al-Mustarshid , Abu al-'Abbas Ahmad, who had survived from the defeated expedition, was proclaimed caliph as al-Hakim I , inaugurating the line of Abbasid caliphs of Cairo that continued as long as the Mamluk sultanate , until 1517. Like his unfortunate predecessor, al-Hakim I also received the formal oath of allegiance of Baybars and provided him with legitimation. While most of

5046-402: The ground but fortified and repaired it instead, as it was strategically situated and well constructed. He installed a new governor in Safed, with the rank of Wali . Later, in 1266, Baybars invaded the Christian country of Cilician Armenia which, under King Hethum I , had submitted to the Mongol Empire. After defeating the forces of Hethum I in the Battle of Mari , Baybars managed to ravage

5133-528: The growing enmity between the Golden Horde Khan with Hulagu. Baybars, who at that time has just defeated Hulagu, immediately sent envoy to Berke to inform the latter about this. Then, As soon as Berke converted to Islam, he sent envoy to Egypt to give news about this matter, and later, Baybars brought more peoples from Golden Horde to be sent into Egypt, where they also converted to Islam. In some time around October to November 1267, or about 666 Safar of Hijra year , Baybars wrote condolences and congratulations to

5220-412: The harbours, and built mosques. He was a patron of Islamic science , such as his support for the medical research of his Arab physician , Ibn al-Nafis . As a testament of a special relationship between Islam and cats , Baybars left a cat garden in Cairo as a waqf , providing the cats of Cairo with food and shelter. His memoirs were recorded in Sirat al-Zahir Baibars ("Life of al-Zahir Baibars"),

5307-417: The horseshoe arch, carved stucco , and glass mosaics made an impression for the aesthetic of mihrabs , "although no other extant mihrab in Spain or western North Africa is as elaborate." The Great Mosque of Damascus was started by al-Walid in 706. It was built as a hypostyle mosque, built with a prayer hall leading to the mihrab, "on the back wall of the sanctuary are four mihrabs , two of which are

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5394-475: The library's holdings included some 100,000 holdings, 13,000 manuscripts, and 50,000 periodicals. Baibars Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari ( Arabic : الملك الظاهر ركن الدين بيبرس البندقداري ; 1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), commonly known as Baibars or Baybars and nicknamed Abu al-Futuh ( أبو الفتوح , lit.   ' Father of Conquests ' ), was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria , of Turkic Kipchak origin, in

5481-405: The library. He was helped in part by the governor of Damascus, Midhat Pasha , who used an edict from the Ottoman sultan to collect books from around the region. The library was nationally recognized by the Syrian state and opened to the public in 1880 or 1881. It continued to consolidate collections throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century and became the National Library. It played

5568-663: The library. The law was not enforced until July 1983, when a presidential decree required the deposit of 5 copies of each work published by a Syrian author. In 1984 the Al-Assad Library became the Syrian national library, replacing al-Zahiriyah Library. The manuscript department includes over 13,000 classical Islamic manuscripts, the oldest being Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal ’s Kitab al-zuhd and Kitab al-fada'il . Other notable manuscripts include Ta'rikh Dimashq by Ibn 'Asakir (1105–1175), al-Jam bayn al-gharibayn by Abu `Ubaydah Ahmad ibn Muhammad Al-Harawi (d. 1010), and Gharib al-hadith by Ibn Qutaybah al-Dinawari (d. 889). As of 2011,

5655-412: The mosaic friezes of the mausoleum were decorative elements that would recur throughout the Mamluk period after Baybars. The madrasa had a library from the outset. Its first books were donated by the mother of al-Sa'id Barakah as part of the madrasa's endowment. It was only turned into a "general library" in 1876 or 1877 by Sheikh Tahir al-Jazairi and Salim al-Bukhari, who collected thousands of items for

5742-503: The nature of the 𐩢𐩧𐩨 ḥrb ritual. The word mihrab originally had a non-religious meaning and simply denoted a special room in a house; a throne room in a palace, for example. The Fath al-Bari (p. 458), on the authority of others, suggests the mihrab is "the most honorable location of kings" and "the master of locations, the front and the most honorable." The Mosques in Islam (p. 13), in addition to Arabic sources, cites Theodor Nöldeke and others as having considered

5829-404: The new Khan of the Golden Horde , Mengu-Timur , to urge him to fight Abaqa . Baybars continued to conduct warm correspondence with the Golden Horde, particularly with Mengu Timur's general Noqai , who unlike Mengu Timur was very cooperative with Baybars. It is theorized that this intimacy was not only due to the religious connection (as Noqai was a Muslim, unlike his Khan), but also because Noqai

5916-441: The portal and the mausoleum are the best-preserved historical parts of the complex. The mausoleum is covered by a large dome and its interior is boldly decorated with marble paneling along its lower walls ( dadoes ) and a large frieze of glass mosaics along its upper walls. The mosaics are reminiscent of the more famous ones found in the Umayyad Mosque nearby, illustrating scenes of trees and palaces. However, their craftsmanship

6003-443: The ranks of Mamluk society, where he commanded Mamluk forces in the decisive Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, repelling Mongol forces from Syria. Although in the Muslim world he has been considered a national hero for centuries, and in the Near East and Kazakhstan is still regarded as such, Baybars was reviled in the Christian world of the time for his successful campaigns against the Crusader States . A Templar knight who fought in

6090-401: The reign of Aybak. Baybars then sent 'Ala al-Din Taybars al-Waziri to discuss with Qutuz his return to Egypt, which was eagerly accepted. He was still a commander under sultan Qutuz at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, when he decisively defeated the Mongols. After the battle, Sultan Qutuz (aka Koetoez) was assassinated while on a hunting expedition. It was said that Baybars was involved in

6177-493: The son of John of Ibelin. Jaffa fell to Baybars on 7 March after twelve hours of fighting; most of Jaffa's citizens were slain, but Baybars allowed the garrison to go unharmed. After this he conquered Ashkalon and Caesarea . Baybars actively pursued a close relationship with Berke , the Khan of Golden Horde. He particularly was recorded to receive the first two hundred soldiers from Golden Horde to visit warmly, where Baybars persuade them to convert to Islam while also observing

6264-455: The terms of the settlement, the Nubians were now subjected to paying jizya tribute, and in return they were allowed to keep their religion, being protected under Islamic law as ' People of the Book '; they were also allowed to continue being governed by a king from the native royal family, although this king was chosen personally by Baybars, namely a Makurian noble named Shakanda. In practice this

6351-413: The three great cities of Mamistra , Adana and Tarsus , so that when Hetoum arrived with Mongol troops, the country was already devastated. Hetoum had to negotiate the return of his son Leo by giving control of Armenia's border fortresses to the Mamluks. In 1269, Hetoum abdicated in favour of his son and became a monk, but he died a year later. Leo was left in the awkward situation of keeping Cilicia as

6438-431: The town he offered free passage to the defending Knights Hospitallers if they surrendered their formidable citadel. The Knights accepted Baybars' offer but were enslaved anyway. Baybars razed the castle to the ground. He next attacked Atlit and Haifa , where he captured both towns after destroying the crusaders' resistance, and razed the citadels. In the same year, Baybars laid siege to the fortress of Safed , held by

6525-602: The town population, and suffered heavy losses. Robert of Artois , who took refuge in a house, and William Longespée the Younger were both killed, along with most of the Knights Templar . Only five Templar Knights escaped alive. The second was the Battle of Fariskur which essentially ended the Seventh Crusade and led to the capture of Louis IX. Egyptian forces in that battle were led by Sultan Turanshah ,

6612-482: The troops of Sinjar outside Damascus, and pursued the attack to the city, where the citizens were loyal to Sinjar and resisted Baybars, although their resistance was soon crushed. There was also a brief rebellion in Cairo led by a leading figure of the Shiite named al-Kurani . Al-Kurani is said originated from Nishapur. Al-Kurani and his follower are recorded to have attacked the weapon stores and stables of Cairo during

6699-593: The way for the later final demise of the Crusader presence in the region. Baybars died unexpectedly in July 1277 in his palace (called al-Qasr al- Ablaq ) in Damascus after drinking a poisoned cup that was intended for someone else. His death was kept a secret and he was temporarily buried in the Citadel of Damascus while arrangements could be made for his permanent burial and for a transition of power to his 18-year-old son al-Sa'id Barakah . Baybars had reportedly expressed

6786-647: The young son of recently deceased as-Salih Ayyub . Shortly after the victory over the Crusaders, Baybars and a group of Mamluk soldiers assassinated Turanshah, leading to as-Salih Ayyub's widow Shajar al-Durr being named sultana . In 1254, a power shift occurred in Egypt, as Aybak killed Faris ad-Din Aktai , the leader of the Bahri Mamluks. Some of his Mamluks, among them Baybars and Qalawun al-Alfi , fled to an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria , persuading him to break

6873-425: Was also arguably the first to employ explosive hand cannons in war, at the Battle of Ain Jalut. His military campaign also extended into Libya and Nubia . He was also an efficient administrator who took interest in building various infrastructure projects, such as a mounted message relay system capable of delivery from Cairo to Damascus in four days. He built bridges, irrigation and shipping canals, improved

6960-504: Was defeated again. In 1257, Baybars and other Bahri Mamluks left Damascus to Jerusalem , where they deposed its governor Kütük and plundered its markets, then they did the same in Gaza . Later on, they fought against the forces of an-Nasir Yusuf at Nablus , then fled to join the forces of al-Mughith Umar  [ de ] in Kerak . The combined forces tried in vain to invade Egypt during

7047-543: Was intended for someone else. Other accounts suggest that he may have died from a wound while campaigning, or from illness. He was buried in the Az-Zahiriyah Library in Damascus. Sultan Baybars married a noble lady from Tripoli (modern-day Lebanon) named Aisha al Bushnatiya, a prominent Arab family. Aisha was a warrior who fought the Crusaders along with her brother lieutenant Hassan. She met Sultan Baybars after he camped in Tripoli during his siege. They had

7134-588: Was not really fond of Mengu-Timur. However, Baybars was pragmatic in his approach and did not want to become involved in complicated intrigue inside the Golden Horde, so instead he stayed close to both Mengu Timur and Noqai. On 30 March 1271, after Baybars captured the smaller castles in the area, including Chastel Blanc , he besieged the Krak des Chevaliers, held by the Hospitallers . Peasants who lived in

7221-515: Was popular and powerful enough to claim Damascus . Also, the threat from the Mongols was still serious enough to be considered as a threat to Baybars' authority. However, Baybars first chose to deal with Sinjar, and marched on Damascus. At the same time the princes of Hama and Homs proved able to defeat the Mongols in the First Battle of Homs , which lifted the Mongol threat for a while. On 17 January 1261, Baybars's forces were able to rout

7308-559: Was reducing Makuria to a vassal kingdom, effectively ending Makuria's status as an independent kingdom. In 1277, Baybars invaded the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm , then controlled by the Ilkhanate Mongols. He defeated a Ilkhanate army at the Battle of Elbistan and captured the city of Kayseri . Baybars himself went with a few troops to deal with the Mongol right flank that was pounding his left wing. Baybars ordered

7395-585: Was required to see to its completion. This may have been accomplished in 1281, with the mausoleum's decoration probably being the last element to be executed. The architect of the complex was Ibrahim ibn Ghana’im al-Muhandis, who was also responsible for building al-Qasr al-Ablaq, the palace of Baybars in Damascus, in 1264. Like many subsequent Mamluk foundations , the funerary complex of Baybars served multiple functions, which were outlined in its waqf (trust agreement for charitable foundations under Islamic law). It included two madrasas (teaching Islamic law ),

7482-471: Was the daughter of Barka Khan a former Khwarazmian amir. She was the mother of his son Al-Said Barakah . She died in 1284–85. Another wife was the daughter Karmun Agha, a Mongol Amir. He had three sons al-Said Barakah , Solamish and Khizir. He had seven daughters; one of them was named Tidhkarbay Khatun. As the first Sultan of the Bahri Mamluk dynasty , Baybars made the meritocratic ascent up

7569-526: Was then followed by a mihrab added to the Mosque of 'Amr ibn al-'As in Fustat in 710–711. Subsequently, concave mihrabs became widespread across the Muslim world and were adopted as a standard feature of mosques. The oldest surviving concave mihrab today is a marble mihrab housed at the Iraq Museum . It is believed to date from the 8th century, possibly made in northern Syria before being moved by

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