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43-446: The name "Cổ Loa" is Sino-Vietnamese reading of 古 螺 (< Middle Chinese ( ZS ) kuo-luɑ > Standard Chinese : gǔ luó ), literally meaning "ancient spiral". According to Đại Việt Sử Ký Toàn Thư , the citadel is shaped like a snail, reflecting of the citadel's multi-layered structure with concentric ramparts and moats. Thục Phán of the Âu Việt people defeated the last Hung king , Hùng Duệ Vương in 257 BCE and founded

86-741: A Vietnamese form for almost all Chinese characters, it can be used to derive a Vietnamese form for any Chinese word or name. For example, the name of Chinese leader Xi Jinping consists of the Chinese characters 習近平 . Applying Sino-Vietnamese reading to each character yields the Vietnamese translation of his name, Tập Cận Bình . Some Western names and words, approximated to Chinese languages often through Mandarin or in some cases approximated in Japanese and then borrowed into Chinese languages, were further approximated in Vietnamese. For example, Portugal

129-504: A capacity of holding up to 12 kg of molten metal. The record of the excavation recorded that 217 different types of grave goods were observed, predominantly of bronze. The bronze items were mostly weapons, with there being 62 spearheads, 36 axes, three knives and six daggers. Some of the weapons were decorated with geometric patterns and pictorial scenes of deer, dogs and people travelling on water transport. There were also bronze vessels, including four thap and four au , six bells and

172-437: A dagger and eight arrowheads were also found. One spearhead generated special interest because it was bimetallic, with an iron blade fitting into a bronze socket. 21°06′48″N 105°52′24″E  /  21.113408°N 105.873206°E  / 21.113408; 105.873206 Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary ( Vietnamese : từ Hán Việt , Chữ Hán : 詞漢越, literally 'Chinese-Vietnamese words')

215-418: A miniature drum. The excavation yielded only twenty ceramic vessels, and no iron was found, similar to the lack of iron reported at Viet Khe and Chau Can . One of the moulds was designed to cast a sword hilt, and it was postulated that iron might have been used to cast the blade, although the excavations showed that iron was likely to have been in short supply during the time. This article about

258-424: A range of artefacts. These include socketed hoes and ploughshares, socketed axes, and spearheads. The artifacts are numerically dominated by the ploughshares, of which there are 96. Six hoes and a chisel were in the set. There were 32 socketed axes of various shapes, including a boat shaped axehead. This was almost a replica of a clay mound found in the grave of the bronze metalworker at Làng Cả . Sixteen spearheads,

301-469: A result of a thousand years of Chinese control , a small number of Sinitic words were borrowed into Vietnamese, called Old Sino-Vietnamese layer. Furthermore, a thousand years of use of Literary Chinese after independence, a considerable number of Sinitic words were borrowed, called the Sino-Vietnamese layer. These layers were first systematically studied by linguist Wang Li . The ancestor of

344-444: A sacrifice to the gods and in one night, a golden turtle appeared to him in a dream and told him the fortress was built on the turtle's carapace. The king was instructed to build the city in a new location, that of present-day Cổ Loa. The king did so, and the city was soon finished. Out of gratefulness to the king, the magic turtle gave the king a claw that he could use as a trigger on his crossbow. When used, it multiplied its force by

387-477: A series of streams, including the Hoàng Giang River and a network of lakes that provided Cổ Loa with protection and navigation. The outer rampart comprises a perimeter of 8 km and is lined with guard towers. The ramparts still stand up to 12 m high and are 25 m in width at their base. Besides, part of the inner rampart was cut through for the purpose of archaeological investigation, which

430-677: A status similar to that of Latin -based words in English: they are used more in formal context than in everyday life. Because Chinese languages and Vietnamese use different order for subject and modifier, compound Sino-Vietnamese words or phrases might appear ungrammatical in Vietnamese sentences. For example, the Sino-Vietnamese phrase bạch mã ( 白馬 "white horse") can be expressed in Vietnamese as ngựa trắng ("horse white"). For this reason, compound words containing native Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese words are very rare and are considered improper by some. For example, chung cư ("apartment building")

473-434: A winner emerged, with the final choice sometimes differing between countries. A fairly large amount of Sino-Vietnamese compounds have meanings that differ significantly from their usage in other Sinitic vocabularies. For example: There also a significant amount of Sino-Vietnamese compounds that are used, but the terms differ in different Sinosphere languages. Such as: Some Sino-Vietnamese compounds are entirely invented by

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516-666: Is Diêm Vương Tinh ( 閻王星 ) and sao Diêm Vương , named after the Hindu and Buddhist deity Yama . During the Hồ dynasty , Vietnam was officially known as Đại Ngu ( 大虞 "Great Peace"). However, most modern Vietnamese know ngu ( 愚 ) as "stupid"; consequently, some misinterpret it as "Big Idiot". Conversely, the Han River in South Korea is often erroneously translated as sông Hàn ( 韓 ) when it should be sông Hán ( 漢 ) due to

559-467: Is tiệt diện ( 截面 ; "cross-section") being replaced by tiết diện ( 節面 ). One interesting example is the current motto of Vietnam : "Cộng hòa Xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam / Độc lập – Tự do – Hạnh phúc", in which all the words are Sino-Vietnamese ( 獨立 – 自由 – 幸福 ). Writing Sino-Vietnamese words with the Vietnamese alphabet causes some confusion about the origins of some terms, due to

602-705: Is a former Sinitic name of the United States and translates literally as " flower flag ". Except for the oldest and most deeply ingrained Sino-Vietnamese names, modern Vietnamese instead uses direct phonetic transliterations for foreign names, in order to preserve the original spelling and pronunciation. Today, the written form of such transliterated names are almost always left unaltered; with rising levels of proficiency in English spelling and pronunciation in Vietnam, readers generally no longer need to be instructed on

645-442: Is a layer of about 3,000 monosyllabic morphemes of the Vietnamese language borrowed from Literary Chinese with consistent pronunciations based on Middle Chinese . Compounds using these morphemes are used extensively in cultural and technical vocabulary. Together with Sino-Korean and Sino-Japanese vocabularies, Sino-Vietnamese has been used in the reconstruction of the sound categories of Middle Chinese. Samuel Martin grouped

688-541: Is also similar. Traces of the original consonant clusters can be found in materials from the 17th century, but have disappeared from modern Vietnamese. The Old Sino-Vietnamese layer was introduced after the Chinese conquest of the kingdom of Nanyue , including the northern part of Vietnam, in 111 BC. The influence of the Chinese language was particularly felt during the Eastern Han period (25–190 AD), due to increased Chinese immigration and official efforts to sinicize

731-664: Is an archaeological site in the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam . Excavations there yielded a number of coffins containing relics of the Bronze Age Dong Son culture . The site is located just upstream from the merging of the Red River and the Black River near Việt Trì . A single radiocarbon dating sample from coffin wood that was exhumed from the site suggested that the artefacts were from

774-402: Is transliterated as 葡萄牙 ( pinyin : Pútáoyá ; Cantonese Yale : Pòuhtòuhngàh ) and becomes Bồ Đào Nha in Vietnamese. England ( 英格蘭 ; Yīnggélán ; Yīnggaaklàahn ) became Anh Cát Lợi ( 英吉利 ), shortened to Anh ( 英 ), while United States became Mỹ Lợi Gia ( 美利加 ), shortened to Mỹ ( 美 ). The formal name for the United States in Vietnamese is Hoa Kỳ ( 花旗 ); this

817-672: The Vietic languages was atonal and sesquisyllabic , featured many consonant clusters, and made use of affixes . The northern Vietic varieties ancestral to Vietnamese and Muong have long been in contact with Tai languages and Chinese as part of a zone of convergence known as the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area . As a result, most languages of this area, including Middle Chinese and Vietnamese, are analytic , with almost all morphemes monosyllabic and lacking inflection . The phonological structure of their syllables

860-562: The literary readings in various parts of China and Sino-Xenic pronunciations in the other countries. As contact with the West grew, Western works were translated into Literary Chinese and read by the literate. In order to translate words for new concepts (political, religious, scientific, medical and technical terminology) scholars in these countries coined new compounds formed from Chinese morphemes and written with Chinese characters. The local readings of these compounds were readily adopted into

903-605: The Old Sino-Vietnamese layer. Sino-Vietnamese shows a number of distinctive developments from Middle Chinese: Up until the early 20th century, Literary Chinese was the vehicle of administration and scholarship, not only in China, but also in Vietnam, Korea and Japan, similar to Latin in medieval Europe. Though not a spoken language, this shared written language was read aloud in different places according to local traditions derived from Middle Chinese pronunciation:

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946-466: The Thục Phán's demise vary. Some say he committed suicide by jumping in the ocean. Some say he was borne off to sea by the magic turtle to never be seen again. In some versions, he was told by the magic turtle about his daughter's betrayal and killed his own daughter before killing himself. The site consists of two outer sets of ramparts and a citadel on the inside, of rectangular shape. The moats consist of

989-418: The Vietnamese and are not used in any Chinese languages, such as linh mục 'priest' from 靈 'soul' and 牧 'shepherd', or giả kim thuật ( 假金術 'art of artificial metal'), which has been applied popularly to refer to 'alchemy'. Another example is linh cẩu ( 靈狗 , 'alert dog') meaning 'hyena'. Others are no longer used in modern Chinese languages or have other meanings. Since Sino-Vietnamese provides

1032-777: The correct pronunciation for common foreign names. For example, while the Sino-Vietnamese Luân Đôn remains in common usage in Vietnamese, the English equivalent London is also commonplace. Calques have also arisen to replace some Sino-Vietnamese terms. For example, the White House is usually referred to as Nhà Trắng (literally, "white house") in Vietnam, though Tòa Bạch Ốc (based on 白屋 ) retains some currency among overseas Vietnamese. However, China-specific names such as Trung Quốc ( Middle Kingdom , 中國 ), as well as Korean names with Chinese roots , continue to be rendered in Sino-Vietnamese rather than

1075-595: The early 20th century. Around 3,000 words entered Vietnamese over this period. Some of these were re-introductions of words borrowed at the Old Sino-Vietnamese stage, with different pronunciations due to intervening sound changes in Vietnamese and Chinese, and often with a shift in meaning. Wang Li followed Henri Maspero in identifying a problematic group of forms with "softened" initials g- , gi , d- and v- as Sino-Vietnamese loans that had been affected by changes in colloquial Vietnamese. Most scholars now follow André-Georges Haudricourt in assigning these words to

1118-414: The eastern sector had a paucity of material goods enclosed in the coffins, while those in the west were much wealthier and accounted for 85.8% of the bronze that was recovered from the burial site. One exhumed grave was postulated to belong to a specialist bronze worker, since he was buried with the tools of a metal worker: a spearhead, sword hilt, bell and ceramic moulds used in casting axes. The mould had

1161-524: The entire fortress, including moats that were fed by the Hoàng River. Kim estimated the population of Cổ Loa possibly ranged from 5,000 to around 10,000 inhabitants. In 1970, the Vietnamese carried out an investigation at a collapsed portion of the outer wall, uncovering Dong Son culture sherds stratified beneath the wall. A 72kg bronze drum was later excavated outside the inner wall in the 1980s. In 2004–05, several cultural layers were identified within

1204-605: The inner wall area. Various Cổ Loa artefacts represented "elite-level or royal characteristics", discovered only within the site’s enclosures, supporting the notion of centralised production and monopolisation. Then in 2007 - 2008 another excavation took place that excavated the middle wall of Cổ Loa citadel. The excavation cut through the entire width of the rampart. The stratification showed multiple layers of construction deposits: three periods and five major phases of construction. Excavations made by archaeologists have revealed Dong Son style pottery that had stratified over time under

1247-420: The kingdom of Âu Lạc , choosing the site of Cổ Loa as his capital. Given its relatively large size, Cổ Loa maintained its dominant presence in the northern floodplain of the Red River Delta and would have required a large amount of labour and resources to construct. The mythical story goes that when the fortress was being built, all the work done during the day was mysteriously destroyed at night. The king made

1290-441: The large number of homophones in Sino-Vietnamese. For example, both 明 (bright) and 冥 (dark) are read as minh , thus the word "minh" has two contradictory meanings: bright and dark (although the "dark" meaning is now esoteric and is used in only a few compound words). Perhaps for this reason, the Vietnamese name for Pluto is not Minh Vương Tinh ( 冥王星 – lit. "underworld king star") as in other East Asian languages, but

1333-541: The meaning of the compound word is preserved even if individually each has multiple meanings. Today Sino-Vietnamese texts are learnt and used mostly only by Buddhist monks since important texts such as the scriptures to pacify spirits (recited during the ritual for the Seventh Lunar month - Trai đàn Chẩn tế; 齋壇振濟 ) are still recited in Sino-Vietnamese pronunciations. Such as the chant, Nam mô A Di Đà Phật coming from 南無阿彌陀佛. Lang Ca Làng Cả ( Việt Trì )

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1376-403: The name's similarity with the country name. However, the homograph/homophone problem is not as serious as it appears, because although many Sino-Vietnamese words have multiple meanings when written with the Vietnamese alphabet, usually only one has widespread usage, while the others are relegated to obscurity. Furthermore, Sino-Vietnamese words are usually not used alone, but in compound words, thus

1419-402: The proportion of words of Sinitic origin in the Vietnamese lexicon vary from one third to half and even to 70%. The proportion tends towards the lower end in speech and towards the higher end in technical writing. In the famous Từ điển tiếng Việt  [ vi ] dictionary by Vietnamese linguist Hoàng Phê  [ vi ] , about 40% of the vocabulary is of Sinitic origin. As

1462-422: The respective local vernaculars of Japan, Korea and Vietnam. For example, the Chinese mathematician Li Shanlan created hundreds of translations of mathematical terms, including 代數學 ('replace-number-study') for 'algebra', yielding modern Mandarin dàishùxué , Vietnamese đại số học , Japanese daisūgaku and Korean daesuhak . Often, multiple compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before

1505-444: The romanization systems used in other languages. Examples include Triều Tiên ( Joseon , 朝鮮 ) for both Korea as a whole and North Korea in particular, Hàn Quốc ( Hanguk , 韓國 ) for South Korea , Bình Nhưỡng ( Pyongyang , 平壤 ), and Bàn Môn Điếm ( Panmunjom , 板門店 ). Seoul , unlike most Korean place names, has no corresponding hanja ; it is therefore phonetically transliterated as Xê-un . Sino-Vietnamese words have

1548-463: The second phase of the Dong Son culture , estimated to be between 382 BCE and 195 BCE. 309 graves were described in Vietnamese archaeological records, but no cemetery plans or a list of graves and contents was recorded. The Vietnamese archaeologists Trinh Sinh and Ngo Si Hong did refer to recorded evidence of the presence of comparatively wealthy graves in certain parts of the cemetery. The graves in

1591-424: The territory. This layer consists of roughly 400 words, which have been fully assimilated and are treated by Vietnamese speakers as native words. It has also been theorised that some Old-Sino-Vietnamese words came from a language shift from a population of Annamese Middle Chinese speakers that lived in the Red River Delta , in northern Vietnam, to proto-Viet-Muong. The much more extensive Sino-Vietnamese proper

1634-550: The thousands. However, one of the Qin dynasty general, Zhao Tuo , took advantage of the decline of the Qin and created his own kingdom north of Âu Lạc called Nanyue . He tried to conquer his southern neighbour but was defeated. Instead, he married his son to the daughter of the Thục Phán. When the son was in Cổ Loa, he discovered the magic turtle's claw and stole it. His father then proceeded to invade Âu Lạc and easily defeated it. Stories of

1677-469: The three together as " Sino-xenic ". There is also an Old Sino-Vietnamese layer consisting of a few hundred words borrowed individually from Chinese in earlier periods, which are treated by speakers as native words. More recent loans from southern Chinese languages , usually names of foodstuffs such as lạp xưởng ' Chinese sausage ' (from Cantonese 臘腸 ; 腊肠 ; laahpchéung ), are not treated as Sino-Vietnamese but more direct borrowings. Estimates of

1720-672: The walls, while a drum was found by chance by Nguyễn Giang Hải and Nguyễn Văn Hùng. The drum included a hoard of bronze objects. The rarity of such objects in Southeast Asia and the range found at Cổ Loa is believed to possibly be unique. The drum itself is one of the largest Bronze Age drums to have been recovered from the Red River Delta, standing 57 cm high and boasting a tympanum with a diameter of 73.6 cm. The drum itself weighs 72 kg and contains around 200 pieces of bronze, including 20 kg of scrap pieces from

1763-450: Was dated from 400-350 BCE. And it was suggested that this rampart was constructed by a local and indigenous society prior to the colonization of Han dynasty. The stamped earth technique or Hangtu method associated with ancient China may have been used in Cổ Loa, but studies of the defensive works are still in a preliminary stage. Also, archaeologists have estimated that over two million cubic metres of material were moved in order to construct

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1806-524: Was introduced with Chinese rhyme dictionaries such as the Qieyun in the late Tang dynasty (618–907). Vietnamese scholars used a systematic rendering of Middle Chinese within the phonology of Vietnamese to derive consistent pronunciations for the entire Chinese lexicon. After driving out the Chinese in 880, the Vietnamese sought to build a state on the Chinese model, using Literary Chinese for all formal writing, including administration and scholarship, until

1849-415: Was originally derived from chúng cư 眾居 ("multiple dwelling"), but with the syllable chúng "multiple" replaced with chung , a "pure" Vietnamese word meaning "shared" or "together". Similarly, the literal translation of "United States", Hợp chúng quốc ( 合眾國 ) is commonly mistakenly rendered as Hợp chủng quốc , with chúng ( 眾 - many) replaced by chủng ( 種 - ethnicity, race). Another example

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