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28-515: Alveolar aveolar Due to the absence of consonant clusters in Chinese and their quite frequent occurrence in Russian, the need for epenthesis – adding additional sounds to words – arises to make pronunciation easier. Thus, the following transformations are typical: In a number of words, the stop consonants [ d ] and [ t ] and the affricate [ ts ] transform to

56-530: A lateral alveolar approximant /l/ . (Samoan words written with t and n are pronounced with [k] and [ŋ] in colloquial speech.) In Standard Hawaiian , [t] is an allophone of /k/ , but /l/ and /n/ exist. In labioalveolars, the lower lip contacts the alveolar ridge. Such sounds are typically the result of a severe overbite. In the Extensions to the IPA for disordered speech, they are transcribed with

84-512: A consonant as alveolar, a diacritic from the Extended IPA may be used: [s͇, t͇, n͇, l͇] , etc. , though that could also mean extra-retracted. The letters ⟨s, t, n, l⟩ are frequently called 'alveolar', and the language examples below are all alveolar sounds. (The Extended IPA diacritic was devised for speech pathology and is frequently used to mean "alveolarized", as in the labioalveolar sounds [p͇, b͇, m͇, f͇, v͇] , where

112-625: Is an extinct dual-source "restricted pidgin " language formerly used in the Arctic , which combined elements of Russian and Norwegian . Russenorsk originated from Russian traders and Norwegian fishermen from Tromsø (northern Norway ) and Kola (north-western Russia). It was used extensively in Northern Norway for about 150 years in the Pomor trade . Russenorsk is important as a test case for theories concerning pidgin languages since it

140-643: Is identified with за , a preposition from the Russian language that has many semantic properties. It is the only preposition present in the Kyakhta pidgin and it is used in the following way: за наша походи means "come to us" ( приходи к нам in proper Russian), за наша фуза means "in our store" ( в нашем магазине in proper Russian). Russian pronouns came into the pidgin in an exclusively possessive form: моя ("I") means "mine" in Russian, твоя ("you") means "yours" in Russian, and ево ("he") comes from Russian его , which means "his" in Russian. This feature

168-405: Is not. [s̠] differs from postalveolar [ʃ] in being unpalatalized. The bare letters [s, t, n, l] , etc. cannot be assumed to specifically represent alveolars. The language may not make such distinctions, such that two or more coronal places of articulation are found allophonically , or the transcription may simply be too broad to distinguish dental from alveolar. If it is necessary to specify

196-552: Is shared with the Norwegian-Russian pidgin Russenorsk . All declensions of pronouns are formed with the already mentioned за : за-моя , за-твоя , за-ево . Alveolar consonant Alveolar ( / æ l ˈ v iː ə l ər / ; UK also / æ l v i ˈ oʊ l ər / ) consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge , which is called that because it contains

224-428: Is used as an interrogative word. The general word order is SVO , with some alterations for questions and sentences with adverbs. På is used as the only preposition for the oblique case : Russenorsk does not have extensive morphology, but has some unique characteristics. The ending -om does not come from Russian nor Norwegian, but it may come from Solombala English . The ending -mann , from Norwegian,

252-401: Is used to indicate nationality or profession, for example russmann ('Russian'), burmann ('Norwegian'), or kukmann ('trader'). Other morphological features are reduplication , such as morra-morradag ('after tomorrow'), and compounding , such as kua ('cow') and sjorta ('shirt') to kuasjorta ('cowhide'). One characteristic syntactical attribute of Russenorsk is

280-515: The alveoli (the sockets) of the upper teeth. Alveolar consonants may be articulated with the tip of the tongue (the apical consonants ), as in English , or with the flat of the tongue just above the tip (the "blade" of the tongue; called laminal consonants ), as in French and Spanish . The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) does not have separate symbols for the alveolar consonants. Rather,

308-543: The fricative [ z ] : Most of the words in the Kyakhta pidgin come from Russian. Many of them, in particular those that do not have consonants clusters, undergo no change; for example, воля ("will"), люди ("people"), мало ("little"), надо ("it is necessary"), рубаха ("shirt"), сюда ("to here"), чужой ("alien"), шуба ("fur coat"). As a rule, pidgins have limited grammar and vocabulary. To compensate for this, words are often borrowed with additional meanings. In Kyakhta pidgin, for instance,

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336-520: The adverb мало , along with the meaning of "little" that it has in Russian, also means "not only"; посиди means not only "to seat", but also "to converse". An example of significant difference between the Russian meaning and the meaning in Kyakhta pidgin is the word месяца – it means "months" in Russian, but "forever" in the pidgin. The predominantly colloquial origin of words is very noticeable. Many words are present in exclusively diminutive form: женушеки ("woman") comes from Russian женушка ,

364-428: The alveolar diacritic on labial letters: ⟨ m͇ p͇ b͇ f͇ v͇ ⟩. Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced , to the left are voiceless . Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible. Legend: unrounded  •  rounded Russenorsk Russenorsk ( Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈrʉ̂sːəˌnɔʂk] ; Russian : руссено́рск , [rʊsʲɪˈnorsk] ; English: Russo-Norwegian)

392-433: The dialect of Vardø : One of the characteristics differentiating the pidgin from jargon is its grammar; however, Russenorsk did not go through tertiary hybridization. Russenorsk is mainly influenced by Norwegian grammar, leading some to conclude that it is a variant of Norwegian with some Russian influence. A lack of metalinguistic awareness amongst Russenorsk speakers may have led them to believe they were speaking

420-421: The diminutive form of жена ("wife"); рюмашека ("wine glass") comes from Russian рюмашка , the diminutive form of рюмка ; беленеки ("white") comes from Russian беленький , the diminutive form of белый . While Russian is clearly the main source of vocabulary, some words are borrowed from Mongolian which was spoken in the same region, such as адали ("exactly"), and бичиху ("to write"). Still,

448-648: The few Russian records of the language, there are examples of both /z/ and /ts/ in the words презентоме ( prezentome , 'to give') and принципал ( printsipal , 'captain'), for which the Norwegians used /s/ . The Russian affricate /tɕ/ in words such as чай ( chaj , 'tea') was substituted by the Norwegians with the fricative /ç/ . Corpora of Russenorsk consist of lists of individual words and phrases as well as records of dialogues compiled by linguists such as Just Knud Qvigstad . The corpora include c. 400 words, about half of those only appear once in

476-541: The imperative form of Russian verbs: for example, болей is the Russian verb болеть ("to be sick"), but in the imperative mood. We can speculate that such forms prevailed when Russians addressed their interlocutors. During the late stages of the pidgin, the indicators of verb tenses appear: было indicates the past tense, буду indicates the future tense, еса indicates the present tense; for example, погули было means "to have walked", погули еса means "to be walking", погули буду means "will walk". An object

504-853: The influence of Mongolian is minimal. The only significant contribution of Mandarin Chinese to the vocabulary is the word фуза meaning "store, shop" (Mandarin Chinese : 鋪子 ; pinyin : pùzi ). Aside from that, Kyakhta pidgin contains several new compounds that could have been inspired by Chinese: Like most pidgins, Kyakhta pidgin lacks many morphological categories: there are no cases, numbers or gender of nouns. Russian pidgins in general tend to have clear verb indications. In Kyakhta Pidgin, similarly to other Siberian pidgins, most verbs have ending -j/-i: болей ("to be sick"), выгони ("to turn out"), захорони ("to bury"), гоняй ("to drive"), незнай ("to be unaware"), ругай ("to scold"), сади ' ("to seat"). This ending makes verbs similar to

532-440: The language of their interlocutor; that is, that Russians believed they were speaking Norwegian and vice versa. There are no clear verb conjugations. The main indication of a verb is the suffix -om , for example, kapitan på kajuta slipom (the captain is asleep in his cabin). Nominative nouns usually end with -a . Conjunctions used to make compound sentences or dependent clauses are ja , i , and jes . Kak

560-554: The language to the extent that they could communicate in rudimentary Russian. This increase in Russian study caused the devaluation of Russenorsk in terms of social status. In 1917, Finland's declaration of independence from Russia caused the Russian–Norwegian border to decrease significantly. In 1919, the border disappeared completely. Furthermore, the Soviet Union limited international contact significantly, decreasing

588-533: The lower lip contacts the alveolar ridge.) Alveolar consonants are transcribed in the IPA as follows: There are no languages that have no alveolars at all. The alveolar or dental consonants [t] and [n] are, along with [k] , the most common consonants in human languages. Nonetheless, there are a few languages that lack them. A few languages on Bougainville Island and around Puget Sound , such as Makah , lack nasals and therefore [n] but have [t] . Colloquial Samoan , however, lacks both [t] and [n] but has

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616-664: The most studied northern pidgins; many linguists, for example, Olaf Broch , studied it. Unlike equatorial pidgins, it was formed from only two languages, Norwegian and Russian. Furthermore, these languages are not from the same branch of Indo-European languages. Also unlike equatorial pidgins, Russenorsk was formed from one social class. Until 1850, Russenorsk was socially acceptable for all social classes. In 1850, Russenorsk became more limited to Norwegian fishermen, whereas Norwegian traders learnt Russian through exposure in Archangelsk and Russian trade centers, often formally studying

644-563: The need for the common language between Norwegians and Russians. The last such Norwegian–Russian trade occurred in 1923. Russenorsk uses many of the phonemes common to both Norwegian and Russian, altering phonemes only used in one. Pronunciation depended on the language background of the speaker. More is known about the Norwegian variety of Russenorsk due to the fact that most of the texts in Russenorsk were written by Norwegians. In

672-672: The records (so-called hapax legomena ), therefore, the vocabulary contained only 150–200 core words. The origin of its vocabulary is generally held to be approximately 40% Russian and 50% Norwegian, with the remaining 10% from Dutch , Low German , French , English , Sami , and Swedish . Many words in Russenorsk have a synonym from the other primary language. Some words can be etymologically traced to both Norwegian and Russian, for example, vin (Norwegian) and вино (Russian). Some words have an unclear etymology; for example, tovara or vara could have come from Russian, Swedish, or Finnish. Some Russenorsk words survive in

700-407: The same symbol is used for all coronal places of articulation that are not palatalized like English palato-alveolar sh , or retroflex . To disambiguate, the bridge ( [s̪, t̪, n̪, l̪] , etc. ) may be used for a dental consonant, or the under-bar ( [s̠, t̠, n̠, l̠] , etc. ) may be used for the postalveolars . [s̪] differs from dental [θ] in that the former is a sibilant and the latter

728-518: The sunny months of the year and was beneficial to both sides; Norwegians had access to cheap fish in the summer, whilst Russians had surplus wheat . Traders came from the areas near Murmansk and the White Sea , most often to the towns of Vardø , Hammerfest , and Tromsø, occasionally further south to the Lofoten islands . The earliest recorded instance of Russenorsk was in 1785. It is one of

756-467: Was used far away from most of the other documented pidgins of the world. As is common in the development of pidgins and trade languages , the interaction of fishermen and traders with no common language necessitated the creation of some minimal form of communication. Like all pidgins, Russenorsk had a rudimentary grammar and a restricted vocabulary, mostly composed of words essential to Arctic fishing and trade ( fish , weather , etc.); however, Russenorsk

784-607: Was used outside of fishing and trade context during the off-season as it was not uncommon for Russians to remain in Norway during the winter. Barter existed between Russians and Norwegians for 150 years in Troms and Finnmark counties. This barter was supported by the Norwegian government, and King Christian VII conferred city status to several settlements, such as Tromsø , to facilitate it. Norwegians mainly traded fish for flour and wheat from Russians. The trading went on throughout

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