Misplaced Pages

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82-422: The Bay is approximately 8 mi (13 km) long and 2.7 mi (4.3 km) wide, with a mouth opening of about 4.6 mi (7.4 km) wide and a maximum depth of 40 ft (12 m) in the dredged channel. It has one of the two barrier reefs in the archipelago, the other being the 27 mi (43 km) barrier reef of Molokaʻi island , and also has extensive development of shoaling coral reefs within

164-749: A Darwin Point is reached. One such point exists at the northwestern end of the Hawaiian Archipelago; see Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Coral atoll stage . However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer. 37 species of scleractinian corals inhabit such an environment around Larak Island . Deep-water coral inhabits greater depths and colder temperatures at much higher latitudes, as far north as Norway. Although deep water corals can form reefs, little

246-471: A National Nutrient Strategy with a focus on developing nutrient criteria. Between 2000 and 2010 EPA published federal-level nutrient criteria for rivers/streams, lakes/reservoirs, estuaries and wetlands; and related guidance. "Ecoregional" nutrient criteria for 14 ecoregions across the U.S. were included in these publications. While states may directly adopt the EPA-published criteria, in many cases

328-403: A "pollutant budget" with allocations to each of the pollutant's sources. For many coastal water bodies, the main pollutant issue is excess nutrients, also termed nutrient over-enrichment. A TMDL can prescribe the minimum level of dissolved oxygen (DO) available in a body of water, which is directly related to nutrient levels. ( See Aquatic Hypoxia .) TMDLs addressing nutrient pollution are

410-644: A continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world's largest barrier reef, 300–1,000 m (980–3,280 ft) from shore, stretching for 2,000 km (1,200 mi). Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than 150 m (490 ft) because of their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level. As

492-404: A harmful algal bloom can cause skin rashes and respiratory problems. Nutrient trading is a type of water quality trading , a market-based policy instrument used to improve or maintain water quality. The concept of water quality trading is based on the fact that different pollution sources in a watershed can face very different costs to control the same pollutant. Water quality trading involves

574-569: A large lagoon . Two navigable channels cut across the northern and southern ends of the barrier reef. The deeper, northern channel, located off Kualoa Regional Park , provides entrance from the North Pacific Ocean to a ship channel dredged the length of the lagoon between 1939 and 1945. The lagoon contains extensive patch and fringing reefs and its southern end is partly enclosed by the Mokapu Peninsula . This peninsula

656-493: A major component of the U.S. National Nutrient Strategy. TMDLs identify all point source and nonpoint source pollutants within a watershed. To implement TMDLs with point sources, wasteload allocations are incorporated into their NPDES permits. NPS discharges are generally in a voluntary compliance scenario. EPA published a TMDL for the Chesapeake Bay in 2010, addressing nitrogen, phosphorus and sediment pollution for

738-412: A pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across. Reef-building or hermatypic corals live only in the photic zone (above 70 m), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water. Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic algae ( dinoflagellates ) of the genus Symbiodinium , commonly referred to as zooxanthellae . These organisms live within

820-496: A pseudo-atoll. These can be distinguished from real atolls only by detailed investigation, possibly including core drilling. Some platform reefs of the Laccadives are U-shaped, due to wind and water flow. Atolls or atoll reefs are a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef that extends all the way around a lagoon without a central island. They are usually formed from fringing reefs around volcanic islands. Over time,

902-433: A rapidly subsiding bottom can overwhelm coral growth, killing the coral and the reef, due to what is called coral drowning . Corals that rely on zooxanthellae can die when the water becomes too deep for their symbionts to adequately photosynthesize , due to decreased light exposure. The two main variables determining the geomorphology , or shape, of coral reefs are the nature of the substrate on which they rest, and

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984-423: A zone extending from approximately 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft). The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few reefs exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F). When the net production by reef building corals no longer keeps pace with relative sea level and the reef structure permanently drowns

1066-428: Is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters (lakes, rivers and coastal waters ), in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or phosphorus , stimulate algal growth. Sources of nutrient pollution include surface runoff from farm fields and pastures, discharges from septic tanks and feedlots , and emissions from combustion. Raw sewage is a large contributor to cultural eutrophication since sewage

1148-578: Is constantly changing. Each reef is made up of irregular patches of algae, sessile invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The size, shape and relative abundance of these patches change from year to year in response to the various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for example, produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms may knock out large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move. Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km (109,800 sq mi), just under 0.1% of

1230-445: Is directly attached to a shore, or borders it with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon. It is the most common reef type. Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can extend for many kilometres. They are usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are hundreds of metres wide. Fringing reefs are initially formed on the shore at the low water level and expand seawards as they grow in size. The final width depends on where

1312-417: Is high in nutrients. Releasing raw sewage into a large water body is referred to as sewage dumping, and still occurs all over the world. Excess reactive nitrogen compounds in the environment are associated with many large-scale environmental concerns. These include eutrophication of surface waters , harmful algal blooms , hypoxia , acid rain , nitrogen saturation in forests, and climate change . Since

1394-523: Is known about them. The northernmost coral reef on Earth is located near Eilat , Israel . Coral reefs are rare along the west coasts of the Americas and Africa , due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (the Humboldt , Benguela , and Canary Currents , respectively). Corals are seldom found along the coastline of South Asia —from

1476-546: Is occupied by Marine Corps Base Hawaii . There are five named islands or islets within Kāneʻohe Bay. A sand bar (Ahu o Laka), Kapapa, and Kekepa (Turtleback Rock) are all islets on the barrier reef. Two islands within Kāneʻohe Bay are prominent: Mokoliʻi and Moku o Loʻe ( Coconut Island ), the largest of the five. Mokoliʻi is a volcanic remnant at the very north end of the Bay, site of former Kualoa Airfield . The community on

1558-418: Is often the reef's most diverse area. Coral and calcareous algae provide complex habitats and areas that offer protection, such as cracks and crevices. Invertebrates and epiphytic algae provide much of the food for other organisms. A common feature on this forereef zone is spur and groove formations that serve to transport sediment downslope. The reef flat is the sandy-bottomed flat, which can be behind

1640-536: Is organic or synthetically made, some of it will leave as runoff and can collect downstream generating cultural eutrophication. Mitigation approaches to reduce nutrient pollutant discharges include nutrient remediation, nutrient trading and nutrient source apportionment. The principal source(s) of nutrient pollution in an individual watershed depend on the prevailing land uses . The sources may be point sources , nonpoint sources , or both: Nutrient pollution from some air pollution sources may occur independently of

1722-586: Is that which comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. Nonpoint sources are difficult to regulate and usually vary spatially and temporally (with season , precipitation , and other irregular events ). It has been shown that nitrogen transport is correlated with various indices of human activity in watersheds, including the amount of development. Ploughing in agriculture and development are among activities that contribute most to nutrient loading. Nutrients from human activities tend to accumulate in soils and remain there for years. It has been shown that

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1804-480: Is the largest source of water quality impairments throughout the U.S., based on surveys by state environmental agencies. NPS pollution is not subject to discharge permits under the federal Clean Water Act (CWA). EPA and states have used grants, partnerships and demonstration projects to create incentives for farmers to adjust their practices and reduce surface runoff . The basic requirements for states to develop nutrient criteria and standards were mandated in

1886-1437: The Cambrian . Sometimes called rainforests of the sea , shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean area, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all marine species , including fish , mollusks , worms , crustaceans , echinoderms , sponges , tunicates and other cnidarians . Coral reefs flourish in ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but deep water and cold water coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas. Shallow tropical coral reefs have declined by 50% since 1950, partly because they are sensitive to water conditions. They are under threat from excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), rising ocean heat content and acidification , overfishing (e.g., from blast fishing , cyanide fishing , spearfishing on scuba ), sunscreen use, and harmful land-use practices, including runoff and seeps (e.g., from injection wells and cesspools). Coral reefs deliver ecosystem services for tourism, fisheries and shoreline protection . The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at anywhere from US$ 30–375 billion (1997 and 2003 estimates) to US$ 2.7 trillion (a 2020 estimate) to US$ 9.9 trillion (a 2014 estimate). Though

1968-475: The Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma), when reefs formed by a group of bivalves called rudists existed; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap. Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral reefs, such as Porites , can indicate changes in sea surface temperature and sea surface salinity conditions during

2050-739: The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System and the New Caledonian Barrier Reef . Barrier reefs are also found on the coasts of Providencia , Mayotte , the Gambier Islands , on the southeast coast of Kalimantan , on parts of the coast of Sulawesi , southeastern New Guinea and the south coast of the Louisiade Archipelago . Platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can form on the continental shelf , as well as in

2132-592: The Middle Cambrian (513–501 Ma ), Devonian (416–359 Ma) and Carboniferous (359–299 Ma), owing to extinct order Rugosa corals, and Late Cretaceous (100–66 Ma) and Neogene (23 Ma–present), owing to order Scleractinia corals. Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: those in the Early Cambrian (542–513 Ma) resulted from calcareous algae and archaeocyathids (small animals with conical shape, probably related to sponges ) and in

2214-474: The biosphere . Globally, nitrogen balances are quite inefficiently distributed with some countries having surpluses and others deficits, causing especially a range of environmental issues in the former. For most countries around the world, the trade-off between closing yield gaps and mitigating nitrogen pollution is small or non-existent. Phosphorus pollution is caused by excessive use of fertilizers and manure , particularly when compounded by soil erosion . In

2296-480: The class Anthozoa in the animal phylum Cnidaria , which includes sea anemones and jellyfish . Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate exoskeletons that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. Coral reefs first appeared 485 million years ago, at the dawn of the Early Ordovician , displacing the microbial and sponge reefs of

2378-417: The tropics where the water is agitated, but can only live within a limited depth range, starting just below low tide . Where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form fringing reefs, and can eventually grow to become a barrier reef. Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow around the coast, but coral raised above sea level dies. If the land subsides slowly,

2460-462: The "Big 3" primary nutrients in commercial fertilizers, each of these fundamental nutrients play a key role in plant nutrition. When nitrogen and phosphorus are not fully utilized by the growing plants, they can be lost from the farm fields and negatively impact air and downstream water quality. These nutrients can eventually end up in aquatic ecosystems and are a contributor to increased eutrophication. When farmers spread their fertilizer, whether it

2542-414: The 1972 Clean Water Act. Implementing this water quality program has been a major scientific, technical and resource-intensive challenge for both EPA and the states, and development is continuing well into the 21st century. EPA published a wastewater management regulation in 1978 to begin to address the national nitrogen pollution problem, which had been increasing for decades. In 1998, the agency published

Kāneʻohe Bay - Misplaced Pages Continue

2624-814: The Caribbean: On Stranger Tides was filmed on the bay. Geologically, Kāneʻohe Bay forms part of a former caldera of the Koʻolau volcano . In prehistory, most of the volcano catalysmically slid into the Pacific Ocean, leaving behind only the Range and the Bay. Coral reef A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals . Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate . Most coral reefs are built from stony corals , whose polyps cluster in groups. Coral belongs to

2706-535: The EPA had introduced watershed-based NPDES permitting in 2007, interest in nutrient removal and achieving regional Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) limitations led to the development of nutrient trading schemes. In 2008 EPA published a progress report on state efforts to develop nutrient standards. A majority of states had not developed numeric nutrient criteria for rivers and streams; lakes and reservoirs; wetlands and estuaries (for those states that have estuaries). In

2788-556: The European Union, it is estimated that we may lose more than 100,000 tonnes of Phosphorus to water bodies and lakes due to water erosion. Phosphorus is also discharged by municipal sewage treatment plants and some industries. Point sources are directly attributable to one influence. In point sources the nutrient waste travels directly from source to water. Point sources are relatively easy to regulate. Nonpoint source pollution (also known as 'diffuse' or 'runoff' pollution)

2870-738: The Indian Ocean, for example, in the Maldives , the Chagos Islands , the Seychelles and around Cocos Island . The entire Maldives consist of 26 atolls. Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that host different kinds of habitats. Usually, three major zones are recognized: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef (frequently referred to as the reef lagoon). The three zones are physically and ecologically interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes create opportunities for

2952-618: The Source Load Apportionment Model (SLAM) takes the latter approach, estimating the relative contribution of sources of nitrogen and phosphorus to surface waters in Irish catchments without in-stream monitoring data by integrating information on point discharges (urban wastewater, industry and septic tank systems), diffuse sources (pasture, arable, forestry, etc.), and catchment data, including hydrogeological characteristics. Agricultural nonpoint source (NPS) pollution

3034-882: The U.S., while not necessarily the largest sources of nutrients in their respective watersheds, are required to comply with nutrient effluent limitations in their permits, which are issued through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), pursuant to the CWA. Some large municipal sewage treatment plants, such as the Blue Plains Advanced Wastewater Treatment Plant in Washington, D.C. have installed biological nutrient removal (BNR) systems to comply with regulatory requirements. Other municipalities have made adjustments to

3116-599: The UV radiation and allowing them to better adapt to warmer water temperatures. In the event of UV or thermal damage, if and when repair occurs, it will increase the likelihood of survival of the host and symbiont. This leads to the idea that, evolutionarily, clade A is more UV resistant and thermally resistant than the other clades. Clades B and C are found more frequently in deeper water, which may explain their higher vulnerability to increased temperatures. Terrestrial plants that receive less sunlight because they are found in

3198-435: The agricultural boom in the 1910s and again in the 1940s to match the increase in food demand, agricultural production relies heavily on the use of fertilizers. Fertilizer is a natural or chemically modified substance that helps soil become more fertile. These fertilizers contain high amounts of phosphorus and nitrogen, which results in excess amounts of nutrients entering the soil. Nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium are

3280-562: The amount of phosphorus lost to surface waters increases linearly with the amount of phosphorus in the soil. Thus much of the nutrient loading in soil eventually makes its way to water. Nitrogen, similarly, has a turnover time of decades. Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through storm drains , sewage pipes, and other forms of surface runoff . Nutrient losses in runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture . Modern agriculture often involves

3362-541: The application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximize production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are needed by crops, resulting in the excess pollution running off into either surface or groundwater. or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimizing nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out

Kāneʻohe Bay - Misplaced Pages Continue

3444-502: The coast. The fringing reefs of the Red Sea are "some of the best developed in the world" and occur along all its shores except off sandy bays. Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or lagoon . They resemble the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon but differ from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their lagoons can be several kilometres wide and 30 to 70 metres deep. Above all,

3526-485: The coastal plains had become continental islands . As sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental islands. The corals could then overgrow the hills, forming cays and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years. The age of living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years. Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along

3608-451: The coral animals. Coral that loses a large fraction of its zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel shades in corals that are pigmented with their own proteins) and is said to be bleached , a condition which, unless corrected, can kill the coral. There are eight clades of Symbiodinium phylotypes . Most research has been conducted on clades A–D. Each clade contributes their own benefits as well as less compatible attributes to

3690-415: The corals shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimetre of coral, and provide a constant supply of the carbon dioxide they need for photosynthesis. The varying pigments in different species of zooxanthellae give them an overall brown or golden-brown appearance and give brown corals their colors. Other pigments such as reds, blues, greens, etc. come from colored proteins made by

3772-529: The deep sea away from continental shelves , around oceanic islands and atolls . The majority of these islands are volcanic in origin. Others have tectonic origins where plate movements lifted the deep ocean floor. In The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs , Charles Darwin set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the voyage of the Beagle . He theorized that uplift and subsidence of Earth's crust under

3854-629: The dominant contributors of phosphorus. Where water quality is impacted by excess nutrients, load source apportionment models can support the proportional and pragmatic management of water resources by identifying the pollution sources. There are two broad approaches to load apportionment modelling, (i) load-orientated approaches which apportion origin based on in-stream monitoring data and (ii) source-orientated approaches where amounts of diffuse, or nonpoint source pollution , emissions are calculated using models typically based on export coefficients from catchments with similar characteristics. For example,

3936-637: The eastern tip of India ( Chennai ) to the Bangladesh and Myanmar borders —as well as along the coasts of northeastern South America and Bangladesh, due to the freshwater release from the Amazon and Ganges Rivers respectively. Significant coral reefs include: When alive, corals are colonies of small animals embedded in calcium carbonate shells. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called polyps , arranged in diverse shapes. Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from

4018-632: The entire watershed, covering an area of 64,000 square miles (170,000 km ). This regulatory plan covers both the estuary and its tributaries—the largest, most complex TMDL document that EPA had issued to date. In Long Island Sound , the TMDL development process enabled the Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation to incorporate

4100-479: The exchange of seawater , sediments , nutrients and marine life. Most coral reefs exist in waters less than 50 m deep. Some inhabit tropical continental shelves where cool, nutrient-rich upwelling does not occur, such as the Great Barrier Reef . Others are found in the deep ocean surrounding islands or as atolls, such as in the Maldives . The reefs surrounding islands form when islands subside into

4182-712: The first being wet deposition such as rain or snow, and the second being dry deposition which is particles and gases found in the air. Atmospheric deposition (e.g., in the form of acid rain ) can also affect nutrient concentration in water, especially in highly industrialized regions. Excess nutrients have been summarized as potentially leading to: Nutrient pollution can have economic impacts due to increasing water treatment costs, commercial fishing and shellfish losses, recreational fishing losses, and reduced tourism income. Human health effects include excess nitrate in drinking water ( blue baby syndrome ) and disinfection by-products in drinking water. Swimming in water affected by

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4264-401: The floor often supports seagrass meadows which are important foraging areas for reef fish. The reef drop-off is, for its first 50 m, habitat for reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face and plankton in the water nearby. The drop-off zone applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands and atolls. The reef face is the zone above the reef floor or the reef drop-off. This zone

4346-403: The fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll and table reef based on Stoddart, D.R. (1969). Spalding et al. list four main reef types that can be clearly illustrated – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll, and "bank or platform reef"—and notes that many other structures exist which do not conform easily to strict definitions, including the "patch reef". A fringing reef, also called a shore reef,

4428-463: The fringing reefs keep pace by growing upwards on a base of older, dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing a lagoon between the reef and the land. A barrier reef can encircle an island, and once the island sinks below sea level a roughly circular atoll of growing coral continues to keep up with the sea level, forming a central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls do not usually form complete circles but are broken in places by storms. Like sea level rise ,

4510-419: The growth of the coral. This technique is often used by climate scientists to infer a region's paleoclimate . Since Darwin's identification of the three classical reef formations – the fringing reef around a volcanic island becoming a barrier reef and then an atoll – scientists have identified further reef types. While some sources find only three, Thomas lists "Four major forms of large-scale coral reefs" –

4592-548: The history of the change in sea level relative to that substrate. The approximately 20,000-year-old Great Barrier Reef offers an example of how coral reefs formed on continental shelves. Sea level was then 120 m (390 ft) lower than in the 21st century. As sea level rose, the water and the corals encroached on what had been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level had risen to 60 m (200 ft) lower than at present, and many hills of

4674-666: The island erodes away and sinks below sea level. Atolls may also be formed by the sinking of the seabed or rising of the sea level. A ring of reefs results, which enclose a lagoon. Atolls are numerous in the South Pacific, where they usually occur in mid-ocean, for example, in the Caroline Islands , the Cook Islands , French Polynesia , the Marshall Islands and Micronesia . Atolls are found in

4756-536: The local land uses, due to long-range transport of air pollutants from distant sources. In order to gauge how to best prevent eutrophication from occurring, specific sources that contribute to nutrient loading must be identified. There are two common sources of nutrients and organic matter: point and nonpoint sources. Use of synthetic fertilizers , burning of fossil fuels , and agricultural animal production , especially concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFO), have added large quantities of reactive nitrogen to

4838-418: The main reef, containing chunks of coral. This zone may border a lagoon and serve as a protective area, or it may lie between the reef and the shore, and in this case is a flat, rocky area. Fish tend to prefer it when it is present. The reef lagoon is an entirely enclosed region, which creates an area less affected by wave action and often contains small reef patches. However, the topography of coral reefs

4920-484: The mainland. Unlike fringing and barrier reefs which extend only seaward, platform reefs grow in all directions. They are variable in size, ranging from a few hundred metres to many kilometres across. Their usual shape is oval to elongated. Parts of these reefs can reach the surface and form sandbanks and small islands around which may form fringing reefs. A lagoon may form In the middle of a platform reef. Platform reefs are typically situated within atolls, where they adopt

5002-452: The maximum amount of a pollutant (including nutrients) that a body of water can receive while still meeting CWA water quality standards. Specifically, Section 303 of the Act requires each state to generate a TMDL report for each body of water impaired by pollutants. TMDL reports identify pollutant levels and strategies to accomplish pollutant reduction goals. EPA has described TMDLs as establishing

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5084-417: The mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication. Nitrogen is released into the air because of ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide production. The combustion of fossil fuels is a large human-initiated contributor to atmospheric nitrogen pollution. Atmospheric nitrogen reaches the ground by two different processes,

5166-400: The name "patch reefs" and often span a diameter of just a few dozen meters. In instances where platform reefs develop along elongated structures, such as old and weathered barrier reefs, they tend to arrange themselves in a linear formation. This is the case, for example, on the east coast of the Red Sea near Jeddah . In old platform reefs, the inner part can be so heavily eroded that it forms

5248-528: The name implies, coral reefs are made up of coral skeletons from mostly intact coral colonies. As other chemical elements present in corals become incorporated into the calcium carbonate deposits, aragonite is formed. However, shell fragments and the remains of coralline algae such as the green-segmented genus Halimeda can add to the reef's ability to withstand damage from storms and other threats. Such mixtures are visible in structures such as Eniwetok Atoll . The times of maximum reef development were in

5330-469: The northern side is called Waikane , or North Koʻolaupoko. Coconut Island is an isolated volcanic remnant located in the southwest part of the bay. Coconut Island is owned by the state of Hawaiʻi and home to the University of Hawaiʻi , and Pauley-Pagen Laboratory (SOEST). Coconut Island was used for the opening sequence of the television program Gilligan's Island . In August 2010, Pirates of

5412-415: The ocean, and atolls form when an island subsides below the surface of the sea. Alternatively, Moyle and Cech distinguish six zones, though most reefs possess only some of the zones. The reef surface is the shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to surge and tides . When waves pass over shallow areas, they shoal , as shown in the adjacent diagram. This means the water is often agitated. These are

5494-528: The oceans formed the atolls. Darwin set out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation. A fringing reef forms around an extinct volcanic island as the island and ocean floor subside. As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef and ultimately an atoll reef. Darwin predicted that underneath each lagoon would be a bedrock base, the remains of the original volcano. Subsequent research supported this hypothesis. Darwin's theory followed from his understanding that coral polyps thrive in

5576-535: The oceans' surface area. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea , Indian Ocean , Southeast Asia and the Pacific ) account for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account for 7.6%. Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form only in

5658-490: The offshore outer reef edge formed in open water rather than next to a shoreline. Like an atoll, it is thought that these reefs are formed either as the seabed lowered or sea level rose. Formation takes considerably longer than for a fringing reef, thus barrier reefs are much rarer. The best known and largest example of a barrier reef is the Australian Great Barrier Reef . Other major examples are

5740-451: The open ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the growth of zooxanthemic, reef-forming corals. Platform reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the Swain and Capricorn Group on the continental shelf, about 100–200 km from the coast. Some platform reefs of the northern Mascarenes are several thousand kilometres from

5822-420: The operational practices of their existing secondary treatment systems to control nutrients. Discharges from large livestock facilities (CAFO) are also regulated by NPDES permits. Surface runoff from farm fields, the principal source of nutrients in many watersheds, is classified as NPS pollution and is not regulated by NPDES permits. A Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) is a regulatory plan that prescribes

5904-522: The pollution reduction credits on behalf of a government or NGO . As of 2013, payments were overwhelmingly initiated by public good payers like governments and NGOs. Nutrient source apportionment is used to estimate the nutrient load from various sectors entering water bodies, following attenuation or treatment. Agriculture is typically the principal source of nitrogen in water bodies in Europe, whereas in many countries households and industries tend to be

5986-429: The polyps' tissues and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp in the form of glucose , glycerol and amino acids . Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts. In return, as an example of mutualism ,

6068-420: The precise condition under which corals flourish. The light is sufficient for photosynthesis by the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and agitated water brings plankton to feed the coral. The off-reef floor is the shallow sea floor surrounding a reef. This zone occurs next to reefs on continental shelves. Reefs around tropical islands and atolls drop abruptly to great depths and do not have such a floor. Usually sandy,

6150-475: The same year, EPA also established a Nutrient Innovations Task Group (NITG), composed of state and EPA experts, to monitor and evaluate the progress of reducing nutrient pollution. In 2009 the NTIG issued a report, "An Urgent Call to Action", expressing concern that water quality continued to deteriorate nationwide due to increasing nutrient pollution, and recommending more vigorous development of nutrient standards by

6232-412: The sea bed begins to drop steeply. The surface of the fringe reef generally remains at the same height: just below the waterline. In older fringing reefs, whose outer regions pushed far out into the sea, the inner part is deepened by erosion and eventually forms a lagoon . Fringing reef lagoons can become over 100 metres wide and several metres deep. Like the fringing reef itself, they run parallel to

6314-609: The shallow water tropical coral reefs are best known, there are also deeper water reef-forming corals, which live in colder water and in temperate seas. Most coral reefs were formed after the Last Glacial Period when melting ice caused sea level to rise and flood continental shelves . Most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea levels . Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned, without sufficient light. Coral reefs are also found in

6396-587: The states need to modify the criteria to reflect site-specific conditions. In 2004, EPA stated its expectations for numeric criteria (as opposed to less-specific narrative criteria) for total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP), chlorophyll a (chl-a), and clarity, and established "mutually-agreed upon plans" for state criteria development. In 2007, the agency stated that progress among the states on developing nutrient criteria had been uneven. EPA reiterated its expectations for numeric criteria and promised its support for state efforts to develop their own criteria. After

6478-472: The states. In 2011 EPA reiterated the need for states to fully develop their nutrient standards, noting that drinking water violations for nitrates had doubled in eight years, that half of all streams nationwide had medium to high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus, and harmful algal blooms were increasing. The agency set out a framework for states to develop priorities and watershed-level goals for reductions of nutrients. Many point source dischargers in

6560-424: The survival of their coral hosts. Each photosynthetic organism has a specific level of sensitivity to photodamage to compounds needed for survival, such as proteins. Rates of regeneration and replication determine the organism's ability to survive. Phylotype A is found more in the shallow waters. It is able to produce mycosporine-like amino acids that are UV resistant , using a derivative of glycerin to absorb

6642-471: The undergrowth are analogous to clades B, C, and D. Since clades B through D are found at deeper depths, they require an elevated light absorption rate to be able to synthesize as much energy. With elevated absorption rates at UV wavelengths, these phylotypes are more prone to coral bleaching versus the shallow clade A. Nutrient pollution Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution , refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients . It

6724-607: The voluntary exchange of pollution reduction credits from sources with low costs of pollution control to those with high costs of pollution control, and the same principles apply to nutrient water quality trading. The underlying principle is " polluter pays ", usually linked with a regulatory requirement for participating in the trading program. A 2013 Forest Trends report summarized water quality trading programs and found three main types of funders: beneficiaries of watershed protection, polluters compensating for their impacts and "public good payers" that may not directly benefit, but fund

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