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51-474: Pronouns and some basic vocabulary have been reconstructed as being common to Khoe and Kwadi. Because Kwadi is poorly attested, it is difficult to tell which common words are cognate and which might be loans, but about 50 lexical correspondences and a common verb construction have been identified. Westphal's fieldnotes on Kwadi were still being analyzed as of 2018, with the hope that additional grammatical parallels could be identified. Güldemann (forthcoming) reports

102-571: A ±RTR distinction. *(TS)H corresponds to /ts/ in some languages and to /h/ in others. *TSʼ probably wasn't /tsʼ/; it might even have been a click. Only dental clicks remain in Kwadi. Khoe lateral, palatal and alveolar clicks correspond to Kwadi lateral, palatal and velar stops and affricates. However, there is an additional correspondance: the Kwadi uvular affricate and fricative correspond to both lateral and alveolar clicks in Proto-Khoe, similar to

153-475: A Proto-Khoe–Sandawe language, there are enough to suggest that the connection is real. However, other linguists have criticized the proposal as cherry-picking among a large number of non-matching pronominal forms. The pronominal system is quite similar: These may cast some light on the development of clicks. For example, the Sandawe word for 'horn', tlana, may be a cognate with the root nǁâ found throughout

204-681: A Sandawe clan. SIL International began work on Sandawe in 1996 and to date (2004), Daniel and Elisabeth Hunziker and Helen Eaton continue to work on the analysis of the language. They have so far produced a phonological description, a dialect survey report and several papers on aspects of grammar. Sandawe is also currently (since 2002) studied by Sander Steeman of Leiden University . Sandawe has five vowel qualities: All five vowel qualities may be found as short oral, long oral and long nasal vowels. Thus /a/ can be found as /a/ , /aː/ and /ãː/ respectively. There are therefore fifteen basic vowel phonemes. Short nasal vowels also occur, apparently from

255-415: A feminine noun. According to Eaton (2010), definite plural nouns are marked with the suffix -khéé, while definite associative plurals are marked with the suffix -khì. According to Steeman (2011), definite human plurals are marked with -sò. The same roots may be used as adjectives or verbs according to Kagaya (1993:ix). Basic word order in Sandawe is SOV according to De Voogt (1992). However, word order in

306-424: A general process in Sandawe. This analysis requires the assumption of floating low tones carried by consonant clusters , and thought to reflect a historical vowel which has been deleted. The low and mid falling tones are a prosodic effect, found on final syllables, or on penultimate syllables followed by a voiceless vowel; this leftward shift of tone before voiceless vowels (which by their nature cannot carry tone)

357-495: A joint summer program on global and transnational law from its Hague campus. The university has no central campus; its buildings are spread over the city. Some buildings, like the Gravensteen, are very old, while Van Steenis, Lipsius and Gorlaeus are much more modern. Among the institutions affiliated with the university are The KITLV or Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (founded in 1851),

408-421: A preceding nasal vowel. Other final consonants are found as consonant clusters in the middle of a word. Historically, these are presumably due to vowel elision, as evidenced by records from the early 20th century and also by tone patterns. In the northwestern dialect, words are found with final consonants where tonal patterns suggest there was once a voiceless final vowel, and where the southeastern dialect retains

459-789: A second campus located in The Hague houses a liberal arts college ( Leiden University College The Hague ) and several of its faculties. It is a member of the Coimbra Group , the Europaeum , and a founding member of the League of European Research Universities . The university has produced twenty-six Spinoza Prize Laureates and sixteen Nobel Laureates . Members of the Dutch royal family such as Queen Juliana , Queen Beatrix , and King Willem-Alexander are alumni, and ten prime ministers of

510-481: A strategic alliance with Delft University of Technology and Erasmus University Rotterdam for the universities to increase the quality of their research and teaching. The university is also the unofficial home of the Bilderberg Group , a meeting of high-level political and economic figures from North America and Europe. Leiden University partnered with Duke University School of Law starting in 2017 to run

561-559: A voiceless i or u. Sandawe syllables are usually of the form CV; in monosyllabic words, word-final nasals are not uncommon, CV(N). Sometimes other consonants are found in word-final position, but this is most probably the result of deletion of word-final voiceless vowels. A syllabic nasal m is found in Swahili loanwords. The most common word structure is disyllabic with or without long vowels (CV(ː)CV(ː)), according to De Voogt (1992). Although nouns can be masculine or feminine, there

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612-431: Is another general process of Sandawe. Rising tone is only found on long vowels and can be analyzed as a low-high sequence. Thus at a phonemic level, high , low , falling , and downstep are contrastive. The majority of Sandawe syllables are C V . Morpheme-initially, consonant clusters are of the form Cw; these are not found in the middle of morphemes. Most consonants are attested in this Cw sequence apart from

663-420: Is largely unpredictable. However, according to Steeman (2011), all body parts are masculine, bigger plants are masculine while smaller plants are feminine, machinery nouns new to the Sandawe (whose names are typically borrowed from Swahili) are usually feminine, and deverbal nouns representing acts (nominalizations) are masculine. According to Eaton (2010), a masculine noun can be made a diminutive by treating it as

714-474: Is something like creaky voice , not an ejective . In initial position, the glottis is closed during the entire occlusion of the click, and not opened until after the release burst. In medial position, the glottis is closed after the velar closure [ŋ] and before the forward closure, but opened before the click release. Such clicks are not nasalized all the way through; in some tokens they are simply prenasalized glottalized clicks, [ŋkǃˀ] , bearing in mind that

765-488: Is taken into account. The vowels of the protolanguage are reconstructed as oral *a *e *i *o *u and nasal *ã *ĩ *ũ, plus the diphthongs *ai *ae *ao *au *oa *oe *ue *ui and nasal *ãĩ *ũã. Non-click consonants are reconstructed as follows. The existence of the voiced consonants in parentheses is uncertain. The nature of the consonants written in capital letters is uncertain. For instance, the *K series may have been palatal, but might be explained through consonant-vowel harmony or

816-623: Is the most advanced graduate degree and is awarded by select university departments (mostly in the fields of Arts, Social Sciences, Archeology, Philosophy, and Theology). Admission to these programmes is highly selective and primarily aimed at those students opting for an academic career or before going into law or medicine. Traditionally, the MPhil degree enabled its holder to teach at the university levels as an associate professor. In addition, most departments, affiliated (research) institutes, or faculties offer doctorate programmes or positions, leading to

867-433: Is usually no particular marker that indicates the gender. Many singular feminine human nouns are marked by the ending -sù, whereas some singular masculine human nouns end in -é. Additionally, definite human feminine nouns must be marked with the suffix -sù, often repeating marking: ncûmsù-n-sù wife- DEF - F ncûmsù-n-sù wife-DEF-F 'the wife' Gender assignment for most non-human animates as well as inanimates

918-729: The Dutch Golden Age scholars from around Europe were attracted to the Dutch Republic for its climate of intellectual tolerance. Individuals such as René Descartes , Rembrandt , Christiaan Huygens , Hugo Grotius , Benedictus Spinoza , and later Baron d'Holbach were active in Leiden and environs. The university has seven academic faculties and over fifty subject departments, housing more than forty national and international research institutes. Its historical primary campus consists of several buildings spread over Leiden, while

969-720: The Zeeman effect was discovered at the institution by Pieter Zeeman and shortly afterward explained by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz . In the world's first university low-temperature laboratory, Professor Heike Kamerlingh Onnes achieved a temperature only one degree above absolute zero . In 1908, he was also the first to succeed in liquifying helium and has played a role in the discovery of superconductivity in metals. The University Library has more than 5.2 million books and fifty thousand journals. It also has collections of Western and Oriental manuscripts , printed books, archives, prints, drawings, photographs, maps, and atlases . It houses

1020-470: The postalveolar clicks , the tongue often slaps the bottom of the mouth, and this slap may be louder than the actual release of the click. Wright et al. transcribe this slapped click or sublingual percussive with the extended-IPA symbol ⟨ ǃ¡ ⟩. The voiced clicks are uncommon, being found in a few words such as gqokomi 'greater kudu' and gcingco (sp. bird). Labialized clicks are found in word-initial position. The glottalized click phonation

1071-422: The 1640s, over five hundred students were enrolled from all across Europe, making it the largest Protestant university. Baruch Spinoza discovered Descartes's work partly at Leiden University, which he visited for periods of study multiple times. In the 18th century, Jacobus Gronovius , Herman Boerhaave , Tiberius Hemsterhuis , and David Ruhnken were among the renowned academics of the university. In 1896,

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1122-495: The 1920s and 1930s. Martinus Beijerinck , one of the founders of virology, finished his Ph.D. at Leiden in 1877. Kamerlingh Onnes was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1913. Three other professors received the Nobel Prize for their research performed at Universiteit Leiden: Hendrik Antoon Lorentz and Pieter Zeeman received the Nobel Prize for their pioneering work in the field of optical and electronic phenomena, and

1173-673: The 1920s. Recent investigations however (Güldemann 2010) suggest that Sandawe may be related to the Khoe family regardless of the validity of Khoisan as a whole. A discussion of Sandawe's linguistic classification can be found in Sands (1998). Language use is vigorous among both adults and children, with people in some areas monolingual. Sandawe has two dialects, northwest and southeast. Differences include speaking speed, vowel dropping, some word taboo , and minor lexical and grammatical differences. Some Alagwa have shifted to Sandawe, and are considered

1224-669: The Convent of Saint Barbara, then moved to the Faliede Bagijn Church in 1577 (now the location of the university museum) and in 1581 to a former convent of Cistercian nuns , a site which it still occupies, though the original building was destroyed by a fire in 1616. Leiden University's reputation was created in part by the presence of scholars such as Justus Lipsius , Joseph Scaliger , Franciscus Gomarus , Hugo Grotius , Jacobus Arminius , Daniel Heinsius , and Gerhard Johann Vossius within fifty years of its founding. By

1275-492: The IPA. Tc and dz are [tʃ] and [dʒ] in the northwestern dialect, but often [ts] and [dz] or even [z] in the southeast. [tsʰ] for tch occurs but is less common. The clicks in Sandawe are not particularly loud, when compared to better known click languages in southern Africa. The lateral click [ kǁ ] can be confused with the alveolar lateral ejective affricate [ tɬʼ ] even by native speakers. With

1326-485: The Khoe family. This and other words suggests that clicks may form from consonant clusters when the first vowel of a word is lost: *tlana > *tlna > ǁna (nǁa). Another word common to Sandawe and Khoe, the numeral haka 'four', is also found in the neighboring Cushitic languages Aasax and Kwʼadza , and was perhaps borrowed into them from Sandawe. Since the Khoe family appears to have migrated to southern Africa from

1377-644: The Leiden Observatory 1633; the Natural History Museum, with a very complete anatomical cabinet; the Rijksmuseum van Oudheden (National Museum of Antiquities), with especially valuable Egyptian and Indian departments; a museum of Dutch antiquities from the earliest times; and three ethnographical museums, of which the nucleus was Philipp Franz von Siebold 's Japanese collections. The anatomical and pathological laboratories of

1428-741: The Netherlands including Mark Rutte . US President John Quincy Adams also studied at the university. In 1575, the emerging Dutch Republic did not have universities in its northern heartland. The only other university in the Habsburg Netherlands was the University of Leuven located in an area under firm Spanish control. Prince William founded Leiden University to give the Northern Netherlands an institution that could educate its citizens in religion and provide

1479-593: The Ph.D. degree. Most of the Ph.D. programmes offered by the university are concentrated in several research schools or institutes. Leiden University has more than 50 research and graduate schools and institutes. Some of them are fully affiliated with one faculty of the university, while others are interfaculty institutes or interuniversity institutes. Of the 107 Spinoza Prize laureates (the highest scientific award of The Netherlands), twenty-six were granted to professors of Leiden University. Literary historian Frits van Oostrom

1530-662: The Sandawe sentence is very flexible due to the presence of several 'subject identification strategies'. Sample sentence (mid tones are not marked): úte-s yesterday-I kxʼaré-és boy-I hàʔǃà called úte-s kxʼaré-és hàʔǃà yesterday-I boy-I called 'Yesterday I called a boy.' An article in Studies in African Linguistics, Volume 10, Number 3, 1979, by Gerard Dalgish, describes these 'subject identification strategies' in detail. Numerous permutations of sentence constituents are allowed in certain tenses,

1581-621: The behavior of tone at word-, sentence- and discourse-level. De Voogt (1992) and Kagaya (1993) list three level tones (High, Mid, Low) and two contour tones (Falling, Rising). The most promising candidate as a relative of Sandawe are the Khoe languages of Botswana and Namibia . Most of the putative cognates Greenberg (1976) gives as evidence for Sandawe being a Khoisan language in fact tie Sandawe to Khoe. Gueldemann and Elderkin have strengthened that connection, with several dozen likely cognates, while casting doubts on other Khoisan connections. Although there are not enough similarities to reconstruct

Khoe–Kwadi languages - Misplaced Pages Continue

1632-506: The fifth click series in Proto-Kxʼa , and Fehn & Rocha (2023) hypothesize that a similar development took place in the Khoe–Kwadi languages. Thus Proto-Khoe–Kwadi may have had 5 series of click consonants. Rather than suggesting a particular phonetic value, as for example implied by the *‼ of Proto-Kxʼa, Fehn & Rocha use the wild-card symbol *Ʞ. The gaps are likely accidental and due to

1683-518: The following Leiden professors: health psychologist Andrea Evers, immunology technologist Ton Schumacher and psychologist Judi Mesman. Among other leading professors are Wim Blockmans , professor of Medieval History, and Willem Adelaar , professor of Amerindian Languages . Other notable Leiden researchers were the Arabist and Islam expert Christiaan Snouck Hurgronje , the law expert Cornelis van Vollenhoven and historian Johan Huizinga , all during

1734-418: The following reconstructed pronominal system, of a minimal/augmented type: where "E" is an undetermined front vowel and the pronoun base was a deictic like *xa or a generic noun like *kho 'person'. The 3rd-person suffixes were also used on nouns, which in addition had a dual suffix *-da. Both Kwadi and the Khoe languages have verb constructions where the first, dependent verb is marked by a suffix *-(a)Ra and

1785-476: The following, finite verb is unmarked. The nearest relative of Khoe–Kwadi may be the Sandawe isolate; the Sandawe pronoun system is very similar to that of Kwadi–Khoe, but there are not enough known correlations for regular sound correspondences to be worked out. However, the relationship has some predictive value, for example if the back-vowel constraint , which operates in the Khoe languages but not in Sandawe,

1836-422: The government with educated men in all fields. It is said the choice fell on Leiden as a reward for the heroic defence of Leiden against Spanish attacks in 1574. The name of Philip II of Spain , William's adversary, appears on the official foundation certificate as he was still the de jure count of Holland . Philip II forbade all his subjects to study in Leiden. The new institution was initially located in

1887-488: The historical elision of a nasal consonant that is still attested in related forms. Long vowels are written double, aa, and long nasal vowels with a tilde, ã. Long vowels are about 50% longer than short vowels. In morpheme-final position, low-tone /u/ and /i/ are frequently devoiced, though this may not occur after /j/, /w/, or /h/. The glyphs in ⟨brackets⟩ are the practical orthography developed by Hunziker and Hunziker, along with approximate equivalents in

1938-571: The labials, the glottals (ʼ, h), sonorants (r, l, y, w), and the rather infrequent consonants n, d, dl, & the voiced clicks, which may simply be gaps in attestation. The rounded vowels o, u are not found after Cw sequences. Vowel initial syllables, as in cèú 'buffalo', are not found initially, though initial glottal stop is not written ( íóó /ʔíóː/ 'mother'). Glottal stops /ʔ/ are found as syllable codas, though these may be released in an echo vowel in some circumstances. Hunziker et al. prefer to analyze these are final consonants, because

1989-618: The new 'Wijnhaven' building on Turfmarkt in 2016. The Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs was established in 2011, together with the University College, and one of the largest programmes of the Faculty of Humanities, International Studies. Since 2017 Leiden University Medical Center also has a branch at Campus The Hague. The university is divided into seven major faculties which offer approximately 50 undergraduate degree programmes and over 100 graduate programmes. Most of

2040-471: The northeast, it may be that Sandawe is closer to their common homeland than the modern Khoe languages are. Leiden University Leiden University (abbreviated as LEI ; Dutch : Universiteit Leiden ) is a public research university in Leiden , Netherlands. It was founded as a Protestant university in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange as the first university in the Netherlands. During

2091-524: The pattern being: (a) the first constituent is the subject or (b) any non-subject that is first in the sentence must be marked for the subject. Non-subject constituents include verbs, a progressive marker, objects, indirect objects, adverbs, prepositional phrases, complementizers. Similar results are obtained in WH-Questions. Elderkin (1989) analyzes Sandawe as having two level tones (High, Low) and two contour tones (Falling, Rising). His thesis considers

Khoe–Kwadi languages - Misplaced Pages Continue

2142-417: The quality of the echo vowel is predictable, and otherwise this is the only place where the vowels /e a o/ would have voiceless allophones. Hunziker et al. find complementary distribution between homorganic N C clusters, which occur only medially (there are no word-final nasal consonants), and nasal vowels, which they only transcribe word finally. It would therefore seem that NC clusters are the realization of

2193-525: The rare collection of historical trees hundreds of years old, the Japanese Siebold Memorial Museum symbolising the historical link between East and West, the tropical greenhouses with their world-class plant collections, and the central square and Conservatory exhibiting exotic plants from South Africa and southern Europe. In 1998, the university has expanded to The Hague which has become home to Campus The Hague , with six of

2244-400: The rising tone is marked as ǎ. High and low tones are analyzed as the basic tone configurations. However, the high-falling tone is contrastive, for example in [tsʼâ] 'water', but it also occurs often due to a sequence of tones. The mid tone does not occur initially. Hunziker et al. analyze it as a downstepped high tone: //H-L-H// is realized as [H-H-M]. This rightward shift on the tones is

2295-453: The seven faculties represented and exclusive home to the Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs, International Studies and Leiden University College The Hague , a liberal arts and sciences college. Here, the university offers academic courses in the fields of law, political science, public administration and medicine. It occupied a number of buildings in the centre of the city, including a college building at Lange Voorhout , before moving into

2346-511: The small number of reconstructed words in the protolanguage. Sandawe language Sandawe is a language spoken by about 60,000 Sandawe people in the Dodoma Region of Tanzania . Sandawe's use of click consonants , a rare feature shared with only two other languages of East Africa – Hadza and Dahalo , had been the basis of its classification as a member of the defunct Khoisan family of Southern Africa since Albert Drexel in

2397-462: The superscript ⟨ ˀ ⟩ implies coarticulation (that is, that it is pronounced together with the [k] , not after). The practical orthography is based on Xhosa and Zulu . Hunziker et al. (2008) transcribe seven phonetic tones: high [á] , mid [ā] , low [à] , high falling [â] , mid falling [ā̀] , low falling [ȁ] , and rising [ǎː] (on long vowels only). In Sandawe orthography, they are written as exactly with their IPA spelling, but

2448-428: The university are modern, and the museums of geology and mineralogy have been restored. The Hortus Botanicus (botanical garden) is the oldest botanical garden in the Netherlands and one of the oldest in the world. Plants from all over the world have been carefully cultivated here by experts for more than four centuries. The Clusius garden (a reconstruction), the 18th-century Orangery with its monumental tub plants,

2499-533: The university's departments offer their degree programme(s). Undergraduate programmes lead to either a B.A., B.Sc., or LL.B. degree. Other degrees, such as the B.Eng. or B.F.A. , are not awarded at Leiden University. Students can choose from a range of graduate programmes. Most of the above-mentioned undergraduate programmes can be continued with either a general or a specialised graduate program. Leiden University offers more than 100 graduate programs leading to either MA , MSc , MPhil , or LLM degrees . The MPhil

2550-617: The world's largest collections on Indonesia and the Caribbean , collected by the Scaliger Institute which studies various aspects of knowledge transmissions and ideas through texts and images from antiquity to the present day. In 2005, the manuscript of Einstein on the quantum theory of the monatomic ideal gas (the Einstein-Bose condensation ) was discovered in one of Leiden's libraries. In 2012 Leiden entered into

2601-1315: Was the first professor of Leiden to be granted the Spinoza award for his work on developing the NLCM centre (Dutch literature and culture in the Middle Ages) into a top research centre. Other Spinoza Prize winners are linguists Frederik Kortlandt and Pieter Muysken, mathematician Hendrik Lenstra , physicists Carlo Beenakker , Jan Zaanen , Dirk Bouwmeester and Michel Orrit, astronomers Ewine van Dishoeck , Marijn Franx and Alexander Tielens , transplantation biologist Els Goulmy , clinical epidemiologist Frits Rosendaal, pedagogue Marinus van IJzendoorn , archeologists Wil Roebroeks and Corinne Hofman , neurologist Michel Ferrari , classicist Ineke Sluiter , social psychologist Naomi Ellemers , statistician Aad van der Vaart , cognitive psychologist Eveline Crone , organisation psychologist Carsten de Dreu , chemical immunologist Sjaak Neefjes , parasitologist Maria Yazdanbakhsh, electrochemist Mark Koper and astrophysicist Ignas Snellen. The Stevin Prize laureates who have achieved exceptional success in knowledge exchange and impact for society include

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