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86-951: It was created by the Polish minister of industry Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski on 19 March 1928 from several previously-existing state-owned factories and scientific institutes, among them the Centralne Warsztaty Samochodowe and the Ursus factory . It was Kwiatkowski's plan of reorganization and modernization of Polish arms industry that eventually led to the creation of PZInż, but also the Państwowe Wytwórnie Uzbrojenia ( National Arms Works ), Państwowe Zakłady Lotnicze (modern PZL ), Państwowe Zakłady Optyczne ( National Optical Works ) and National Factory of Gunpowder and Explosives in Pionki . On 21 September 1932

172-639: A communist party rule to a Western-style liberal democratic political system . The last post-Soviet troops left Poland on 18 September 1993. After ten years of democratic consolidation , Poland joined OECD in 1996, NATO in 1999 and the European Union in 2004. The government and politics of the Polish People's Republic were dominated by the Polish United Workers' Party ( Polska Zjednoczona Partia Robotnicza, PZPR ). Despite

258-886: A fair level in the aftermath of the Holocaust . In 1947, Poland voted in favour of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine , which led to Israel's recognition by Poland on 19 May 1948. However, by the Six-Day War , it severed diplomatic relations with Israel in June 1967 and supported the Palestine Liberation Organization which recognized the State of Palestine on 14 December 1988. In 1989, Poland restored relations with Israel. The Polish People's Republic participated as

344-959: A member of the United Nations (as a founding member), the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade , the Warsaw Pact , Comecon , the International Energy Agency , the Council of Europe , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , the International Atomic Energy Agency and Interkosmos . Poland suffered tremendous economic losses during World War II. In 1939, Poland had 35.1 million inhabitants, but

430-555: A propaganda tool to control the masses. Transmitted daily at 07:30 p.m CET since 1965, it was infamous for its manipulative techniques and emotive language as well as the controversial content. For instance, the Dziennik provided more information on world news, particularly bad events, war, corruption or scandals in the West. This method was intentionally used to minimize the effects of the issues that were occurring in communist Poland at

516-647: A result of these actions, Poland lost 77,035 km (29,743 sq mi) of land compared to its pre-WWII territory . These were confirmed, pending a final peace conference with Germany, at the Tripartite Conference of Berlin, otherwise known as the Potsdam Conference in August 1945 after the end of the war in Europe. The Potsdam Agreement also sanctioned the transfer of the German population out of

602-639: A result, Poland had a high imprisonment rate but one of the lowest crime rates in the world. During its existence, the Polish People's Republic maintained relations not only with the Soviet Union , but several communist states around the world. It also had friendly relations with the United States , United Kingdom , France , and the Western Bloc as well as the People's Republic of China . At

688-458: The Archbishop of Kraków , Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, was elected Pope , taking the name John Paul II . The election of a Polish Pope had an electrifying effect on what had been, even under communist rule, one of the most devoutly Catholic nations in Europe. Gierek is alleged to have said to his cabinet, "O God, what are we going to do now?" or, as occasionally reported, "Jesus and Mary, this is

774-687: The Catholic Church to members of the anti-Stalinist left. By the end of 1981, Solidarity had nine million members—a quarter of Poland's population and three times as many as the PUWP had. Kania resigned under Soviet pressure in October and was succeeded by Wojciech Jaruzelski , who had been Defence minister since 1968 and Premier since February. On 13 December 1981, Jaruzelski proclaimed martial law , suspended Solidarity, and temporarily imprisoned most of its leaders. This sudden crackdown on Solidarity

860-479: The Holocaust were taboo topics, avoided and downplayed when possible. In most cases, producers and directors were encouraged to portray the Soviet Red Army as a friendly and victorious force which entirely liberated Poland from Nazism , Imperialism or Capitalism . The goal was to strengthen the artificial Polish-Soviet friendship and eliminate any knowledge of the crimes or acts of terror committed by

946-534: The Middle Ages remained as Poland's national emblem; the only feature removed by the communists from the pre-war design was the crown, which was seen as imperialistic and monarchist . The Polish People's Republic maintained a large standing army and hosted Soviet troops in its territory, as Poland was a Warsaw Pact signatory. The UB and succeeding SB were the chief intelligence agencies that acted as secret police. The official police organization, which

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1032-594: The Republic of Poland (1947–1952), and also often simply known as Poland , was a country in Central Europe that existed as the predecessor of the modern-day democratic Republic of Poland . With a population of approximately 37.9 million near the end of its existence, it was the second most-populous communist and Eastern Bloc country in Europe, and one of the main signatories of the Warsaw Pact alliance. The largest city and official capital since 1947

1118-672: The Sejm , the Parliament's lower house, and all but one seat in the elected Senate . Solidarity persuaded the communists' longtime allied parties, the United People's Party and Democratic Party, to switch their support to Solidarity. This all but forced Jaruzelski, who had been named president in July, to appoint a Solidarity member as prime minister. Finally, he appointed a Solidarity-led coalition government with Tadeusz Mazowiecki as

1204-876: The Soviet Union , and from the Soviet Union to the Soviet-imposed puppet satellite government , Poland's new economic system was forcibly imposed and began moving towards a radical, communist centrally planned economy. One of the first major steps in that direction involved the agricultural reform issued by the Polish Committee of National Liberation government on 6 September 1944. All estates over 0.5 km in pre-war Polish territories and all over 1 km in former German territories were nationalised without compensation. In total, 31,000 km of land were nationalised in Poland and 5 million in

1290-662: The 1952 constitution, with amendments , until the introduction of the current constitution on 17 October 1997, abolishing the socialist structure entirely and replacing with a parliamentary system that has remained in place to the present-day. The Ministry of Public Security (UB) and later the Security Service (SB) were the chief intelligence agencies that acted as the secret police. The official police organization, Milicja Obywatelska (MO), along with its ZOMO squads, conducted mass surveillance and violent suppression of protests. The various crimes committed to maintain

1376-565: The Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War and was viewed as an illegitimate state by Poland's government. The seizure of the cargo ships Praca and Prezydent Gottwald in 1953 and 1954, respectively, particularly inflamed tensions between the two countries. Under pressure from the Soviet Union, Poland participated in the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. The Polish People's Republic's relations with Israel were on

1462-491: The Council of State). This did not prevent Solidarity from gaining more support and power. Eventually, it eroded the dominance of the PUWP, which in 1981 lost approximately 85,000 of its 3 million members. Throughout the mid-1980s, Solidarity persisted solely as an underground organization, but by the late 1980s was sufficiently strong to frustrate Jaruzelski's attempts at reform, and nationwide strikes in 1988 were one of

1548-628: The National Engineering Works signed a license agreement with Italian automobile manufacturer Fiat . Soon afterwards, assembly and production of Fiat 508 began. Until September 1939, some 10,000 models were produced in Warsaw’s Factory of Passenger and Light Commercial Vehicles (Fabryka Samochodow Osobowych i Polciezarowych). In 1933, the PZInz was restructured, and divided into the following units: Among vehicles produced by

1634-459: The National Engineering Works, are such models, as: As well as vehicles PZInż also produced aero-engines under licence to various foreign manufacturers, such as: The National Engineering Works also had several prototypes, which did not enter production due to invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Shortly after the outbreak of World War II and the German occupation of Poland ,

1720-789: The PZInż was confiscated by the German state, its factories dismantled and sent to Germany while a large part of the engineers were either killed or sent to Germany as slave workers. After the Warsaw Uprising the Warsaw headquarters of the PZInż was blown up, not to be rebuilt after the war. In 1946 the Ursus works started to be rebuilt and eventually became a large tractor factory. *An existing company, but not currently producing any vehicles Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski (30 December 1888, Kraków – 22 August 1974, Kraków)

1806-610: The PZPR in power, especially after the Cold War intensified, included the harsh treatment of protesters, arrest of opposition leaders and in extreme cases, executions, with an estimated 22,000 people killed or disappeared from 1947 to 1989. Despite the numerous economic hardships, some achievements were established during this period, including improved living conditions, rapid industrialization, and urbanization . Access to universal health care and free education were made available, and

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1892-535: The Polish economy slowed to a crawl. Most visibly, work on most of the major investment projects that had begun in the 1970s was stopped. As a result, most Polish cities acquired at least one infamous example of a large unfinished building languishing in a state of limbo. While some of these, such as the Szkieletor skyscraper in Kraków, were eventually finished decades later, most were never finished at all, wasting

1978-405: The Soviet Union, which they felt was not yet ready to accept a non-Communist Poland. The origins of Polish television date back to the late 1930s, however, the beginning of World War II interrupted further progress at establishing a regularly televised program. The first prime state television corporation, Telewizja Polska , was founded after the war in 1952 and was hailed as a great success by

2064-479: The Soviet model of a "people's democracy" and a centrally planned socialist economy. The government also embarked on the collectivisation of agriculture, although the pace was slower than in other satellites: Poland remained the only Eastern Bloc country where individual farmers dominated agriculture. Through a careful balance of agreement, compromise and resistance — and having signed an agreement of coexistence with

2150-651: The Soviets during World War II, such as the Katyn massacre . Hence, the Polish audience was more lenient towards a TV series exclusively featuring Polish history from the times of the Kingdom of Poland or the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Being produced in a then-socialist country, the shows did contain a socialist agenda, but with a more informal and comical tone; they concentrated on everyday life which

2236-637: The abolition of the Senate as a test of strength against the government. Although it supported the other two questions, the Communist-dominated government branded the PSL "traitors". This massive oppression was overseen by Gomułka and the provisional president, Bolesław Bierut . The official results of the election showed the Democratic Bloc with 80.1 percent of the vote. The Democratic Bloc

2322-591: The acquired territories. Stalin was determined that Poland's new communist government would become his tool towards making Poland a satellite state like other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. He had severed relations with the Polish government-in-exile in London in 1943, but to appease Roosevelt and Churchill he agreed at Yalta that a coalition government would be formed. The Provisional Government of National Unity

2408-430: The additional title Marshal of Poland , and in 1952 he became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers (deputy premier). Over the coming years, private industry was nationalised , the land seized from the pre-war landowners and redistributed to the lower-class farmers, and millions of Poles were transferred from the lost eastern territories to the lands acquired from Germany. Poland was now to be brought into line with

2494-400: The amount that could be exchanged, and so the only practical way to obtain it was from remittances or work outside the country. An entire illegal industry of street-corner money changers emerged as a result. These so-called Cinkciarze gave clients an exchange rate far better than the official one and became wealthy from their opportunism albeit at the risk of punishment, usually diminished by

2580-420: The census of 14 February 1946 showed only 23.9 million inhabitants. The difference was partially the result of the border revision. Losses in national resources and infrastructure amounted to approximately 38%. The implementation of the immense tasks involved with the reconstruction of the country was intertwined with the struggle of the new government for the stabilisation of power, made even more difficult by

2666-717: The committee was replaced by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland , all the key posts of which were held by members of the communist Polish Workers' Party . At the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Stalin was able to present his Western allies, Franklin Roosevelt and Winston Churchill , with a fait accompli in Poland. His armed forces were in occupation of the country, and

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2752-441: The communist authorities. The foundation date corresponds to the time of the first regularly televised broadcast which occurred at 07:00 p.m CET on 25 October 1952. Initially, the auditions were broadcast to a limited number of viewers and at set dates, often a month apart. On 23 January 1953 regular shows began to appear on the first and only channel, TVP1 . The second channel, TVP2 , was launched in 1970 and coloured television

2838-472: The communist government — cardinal primate Stefan Wyszyński maintained and even strengthened the Polish church through a series of failed government leaders. He was put under house arrest from 1953 to 1956 for failing to punish priests who participated in anti-government activity. Bierut died in March 1956 and was replaced with Edward Ochab , who held the position for seven months. In June, workers in

2924-575: The communists were in control of its administration. The Soviet Union was in the process of reincorporating the lands to the east of the Curzon Line , which it had invaded and occupied between 1939 and 1941 . In compensation, Poland was granted German-populated territories in Pomerania , Silesia , and Brandenburg east of the Oder–Neisse line , including the southern half of East Prussia . As

3010-408: The communists. In other areas, the ballot boxes were either destroyed or replaced with boxes containing prefilled ballots. The 1947 election marked the beginning of undisguised communist rule in Poland, though it was not officially transformed into the Polish People's Republic until the adoption of the 1952 Constitution . However, Gomułka never supported Stalin's control over the Polish communists and

3096-560: The considerable resources devoted to their construction. Polish investment in economic infrastructure and technological development fell rapidly, ensuring that the country lost whatever ground it had gained relative to Western European economies in the 1970s. To escape the constant economic and political pressures during these years, and the general sense of hopelessness, many family income providers traveled for work in Western Europe, particularly West Germany ( Wyjazd na saksy ). During

3182-423: The country under a military junta . As a result, several newsreaders had difficulty in finding employment after the fall of communism in 1989. Despite the political agenda of Telewizja Polska, the authorities did emphasize the need to provide entertainment for younger viewers without exposing the children to inappropriate content. Initially created in the 1950s, an evening cartoon block called Dobranocka , which

3268-590: The country's first non-communist prime minister since 1948. On 10 December 1989, the statue of Vladimir Lenin was removed in Warsaw by the Polish authorities. The Parliament amended the Constitution on 29 December 1989 to formally rescind the PUWP's constitutionally-guaranteed power and restore democracy and civil liberties. This began the Third Polish Republic , and served as a prelude to

3354-518: The creation of Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy ( The Central Industrial Region ). After the Soviet Union joined Nazi Germany in the invasion of Poland in 1939, he evacuated Poland with the rest of the Government on 17 September. He was interned in Romania until 1945. He returned to Poland and supervised the projects of reconstruction of the Polish seacoast, and in the years 1947–1952, he

3440-470: The democratic elections of 1991 — the first since 1928 . The PZPR was disbanded on 30 January 1990, and Wałęsa was elected as president eleven months later. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved on 1 July 1991 and the Soviet Union ceased to exist in December 1991. On 27 October 1991, the 1991 Polish parliamentary election , the first democratic election since the 1920s. This completed Poland's transition from

3526-438: The economy at all levels, resulting in a growing black market and the development of a shortage economy . The only way for an individual to buy most Western goods was to use Western currencies, notably the U.S. dollar , which in effect became a parallel currency. However, it could not simply be exchanged at the official banks for zlotys , since the government exchange rate undervalued the dollar and placed heavy restrictions on

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3612-456: The end of the Stalinist era. In 1970, Gomułka's government decided to adopt massive increases in the prices of basic goods, including food. The resulting widespread violent protests in December the same year resulted in a number of deaths. They also forced another major change in the government, as Gomułka was replaced by Edward Gierek as the new First Secretary. Gierek's plan for recovery

3698-518: The end". When John Paul II made his first papal tour of Poland in June 1979, half a million people heard him speak in Warsaw; he did not call for rebellion, but instead encouraged the creation of an "alternative Poland" of social institutions independent of the government, so that when the next economic crisis came, the nation would present a united front. A new wave of labour strikes undermined Gierek's government, and in September Gierek, who

3784-455: The era, hundreds of thousands of Poles left the country permanently and settled in the West, few of them returning to Poland even after the end of socialism in Poland. Tens of thousands of others went to work in countries that could offer them salaries in hard currency, notably Libya and Iraq . After several years of the situation continuing to worsen, during which time the socialist government unsuccessfully tried various expedients to improve

3870-463: The fact that a considerable part of society was mistrustful of the communist government. The occupation of Poland by the Red Army and the support the Soviet Union had shown for the Polish communists was decisive in the communists gaining the upper hand in the new Polish government. As control of the Polish territories passed from occupying forces of Nazi Germany to the subsequent occupying forces of

3956-610: The factors that forced the government to open a dialogue with Solidarity. From 6 February to 15 April 1989, talks of 13 working groups in 94 sessions, which became known as the " Roundtable Talks " ( Rozmowy Okrągłego Stołu ) saw the PUWP abandon power and radically altered the shape of the country. In June, shortly after the Tiananmen Square protests in China, the 1989 Polish legislative election took place. Much to its own surprise, Solidarity took all contested (35%) seats in

4042-468: The financial practices in East Germany running its own ration stamps at the same time. The trend led to an unhealthy state of affairs where the chief determinant of economic status was access to hard currency. This situation was incompatible with any remaining ideals of socialism, which were soon completely abandoned at the community level. In this desperate situation, all development and growth in

4128-460: The form of massive debt are still felt in Poland even today. This Golden Age came to an end after the 1973 energy crisis . The failure of the Gierek government, both economically and politically, soon led to the creation of opposition in the form of trade unions , student groups, clandestine newspapers and publishers, imported books and newspapers, and even a "flying university". On 16 October 1978,

4214-561: The formation of the Solidarity movement. During the Solidarity years and the imposition of martial law , Poland entered a decade of economic crisis, officially acknowledged as such even by the regime. Rationing and queuing became a way of life, with ration cards ( Kartki ) necessary to buy even such basic consumer staples as milk and sugar. Access to Western luxury goods became even more restricted, as Western governments applied economic sanctions to express their dissatisfaction with

4300-457: The former German territories, out of which 12,000 km were redistributed to farmers and the rest remained in the hands of the government (Most of this was eventually used in the collectivization and creation of sovkhoz -like State Agricultural Farms "PGR"). However, the collectivization of Polish farming never reached the same extent as it did in the Soviet Union or other countries of the Eastern Bloc. Nationalisation began in 1944, with

4386-406: The government repression of the opposition, while at the same time, the government had to use most of the foreign currency it could obtain to pay the crushing rates on its foreign debt. In response to this situation, the government, which controlled all official foreign trade, continued to maintain a highly artificial exchange rate with Western currencies. The exchange rate worsened distortions in

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4472-418: The height of the Cold War , Poland attempted to remain neutral to the conflict between the Soviets and the Americans. In particular, Edward Gierek sought to establish Poland as a mediator between the two powers in the 1970s. Both the U.S. presidents and the Soviet general secretaries or leaders visited communist Poland. Poland was hostile to the Republic of China , which had retreated to Taiwan following

4558-526: The highest law was the Constitution of the Polish People's Republic , and the Polish Council of State replaced the presidency of Poland . Elections were held on the single lists of the Front of National Unity . Despite these changes, Poland was one of the most liberal communist nations and was the only communist country in the world which did not have any communist symbols ( red star , stars, ears of wheat , or hammer and sickle ) on its flag and coat of arms . The White Eagle founded by Polish monarchs in

4644-418: The industrial city of Poznań went on strike, in what became known as 1956 Poznań protests . Voices began to be raised in the Party and among the intellectuals calling for wider reforms of the Stalinist system. Eventually, power shifted towards Gomułka, who replaced Ochab as party leader. Hardline Stalinists were removed from power and many Soviet officers serving in the Polish Army were dismissed. This marked

4730-466: The opposition side. The government accepted the idea that some kind of a deal with the opposition would be necessary, and repeatedly attempted to find common ground throughout the 1980s. However, at this point, the communists generally still believed that they should retain the reins of power for the near future, and only allowed the opposition limited, advisory participation in the running of the country. They believed that this would be essential to pacifying

4816-510: The performance of the economy—at one point resorting to placing military commissars to direct work in the factories — it grudgingly accepted pressures to liberalize the economy. The government introduced a series of small-scale reforms, such as allowing more small-scale private enterprises to function. However, the government also realized that it lacked the legitimacy to carry out any large-scale reforms, which would inevitably cause large-scale social dislocation and economic difficulties for most of

4902-445: The population almost doubled between 1947 and 1989. Poland also maintained a large standing army, known as the Polish People's Army . In addition, units of the Soviet Armed Forces were also stationed in Poland as in all other Warsaw Pact countries. In the summer of 1944, the Polish Committee of National Liberation was established by Soviet-backed Polish communists to control territory retaken from Nazi Germany . On 1 January 1945

4988-463: The population, accustomed to the extensive social safety net that the socialist system had provided. For example, when the government proposed to close the Gdańsk Shipyard , a decision in some ways justifiable from an economic point of view but also largely political, there was a wave of public outrage and the government was forced to back down. The only way to carry out such changes without social upheaval would be to acquire at least some support from

5074-442: The post Minister of Industry and Trade in the government of Kazimierz Bartel . Kwiatkowski was a minister in eight successive governments (1926–30) and Deputy Prime Minister of Poland and Minister of Finance of Poland in two governments (1935–39). Among the most famous achievements of Kwiatkowski are the giant construction projects: the construction of Gdynia seaport, the development of the Polish Merchant Navy and sea trade, and

5160-468: The presence of two minor parties, the United People's Party and the Democratic Party , the country was a one-party state because these two parties were completely subservient to the Communists and had to accept the PZPR's "leading role" as a condition of their existence. It was politically influenced by the Soviet Union to the extent of being its satellite country , along with East Germany , Czechoslovakia and other Eastern Bloc members. From 1952,

5246-607: The pro-Soviet government taking over industries in the newly acquired territories along with the rest of the country. As nationalization was unpopular, the communists delayed the nationalization reform until 1946, when after the 3xTAK referendums they were fairly certain they had total control of the state and could deal a heavy blow to eventual public protests. Some semi-official nationalisation of various private enterprises had begun also in 1944. In 1946, all enterprises with over 50 employees were nationalised, with no compensation to Polish owners. The Allied punishment of Germany for

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5332-442: The promise of social and economic reforms. None of these were delivered due to resistance from the hardline communist leadership as it would effectively require abandoning the Marxian economy with central planning , state-owned enterprises and state-controlled prices and trade. After the West refused to grant Poland further loans, the living standards began to fall sharply again as the supply of imported goods dried up, and as Poland

5418-457: The referendum and the January 1947 general elections , the opposition was subjected to persecution. Only the candidates of the pro-government "Democratic Bloc" (the PPR, Cyrankiewicz' faction of the PPS, and the Democratic Party ) were allowed to campaign completely unmolested. Meanwhile, several opposition candidates were prevented from campaigning at all. Mikołajczyk's Polish People's Party (PSL) in particular suffered persecution; it had opposed

5504-404: The reparations far ahead of schedule as a sign of 'friendship' between the two new communist neighbors and, therefore, now friends. Thus, without the reparations and without the massive Marshall Plan implemented in the West at that time, Poland's postwar recovery was much harder than it could have been. During the Gierek era , Poland borrowed large sums from Western creditors in exchange for

5590-403: The socialists should support the communists in carrying through a socialist program while opposing the imposition of one-party rule. Pre-war political hostilities continued to influence events, and Stanisław Mikołajczyk would not agree to form a united front with the socialists. The communists played on these divisions by dismissing Osóbka-Morawski and making Cyrankiewicz Prime Minister. Between

5676-471: The term also became synonymous with authoritarianism , propaganda, manipulation, lies, deception and disinformation. Under martial law in Poland , from December 1981 Dziennik was presented by officers of the Polish Armed Forces or newsreaders in military uniforms and broadcast 24-hours a day. The running time has also been extended to 60 minutes. The program returned to its original form in 1983. The audience viewed this move as an attempt to militarize

5762-442: The time. With its format, the show shared many similarities with the East German Aktuelle Kamera . Throughout the 1970s, Dziennik Telewizyjny was regularly watched by over 11 million viewers, approximately in every third household in the Polish People's Republic. The long legacy of communist television continues to this day; the older generation in contemporary Poland refers to every televised news program as "Dziennik" and

5848-399: The war of destruction was intended to include large-scale reparations to Poland. However, those were truncated into insignificance by the break-up of Germany into East and West and the onset of the Cold War. Poland was then relegated to receive her share from the Soviet-controlled East Germany . However, even this was attenuated, as the Soviets pressured the Polish Government to cease receiving

5934-445: The wide-scale bribery of the Milicja. As Western currency came into the country from emigrant families and foreign workers, the government in turn attempted to gather it up by various means, most visibly by establishing a chain of state-run Pewex and Baltona stores in all Polish cities, where goods could only be bought with hard currency. It even introduced its own ersatz U.S. currency ( bony PeKaO in Polish). This paralleled

6020-469: Was Warsaw , followed by the industrial city of Łódź and cultural city of Kraków . The country was bordered by the Baltic Sea to the north, the Soviet Union to the east, Czechoslovakia to the south, and East Germany to the west. The Polish People's Republic was a unitary state with a Marxist–Leninist government established in the country after the Red Army 's takeover of Polish territory from German occupation in World War II. Communist control

6106-438: Was a Polish politician and economist, Deputy Prime Minister of Poland, government minister and manager of the Second Polish Republic. He studied at the prestigious Jesuit college in Chyrów , and then graduated chemistry at the University of Lwów and Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich . After Józef Piłsudski 's May coup d'état of 1926 in the Second Polish Republic , he was recommended by president Ignacy Mościcki for

6192-608: Was a deputy to the Polish parliament ( Sejm ). With the strengthening of the communist and Soviet grip on the Polish government, which he opposed, he fell out of favour of the communist government of the Polish People's Republic and was forced to retire in 1948. From 1952 onward, he concentrated on studies of chemistry , physics , and history . He died in Kraków on 22 August 1974. Polish People%27s Republic The Polish People's Republic (1952–1989), formerly

6278-410: Was also responsible for peacekeeping and suppression of protests, was renamed Milicja Obywatelska . The Milicja's elite ZOMO squads committed various serious crimes to maintain the communists in power, including the harsh treatment of protesters, arrest of opposition leaders and in some cases, murder. According to Rudolph J. Rummel, at least 22,000 people were killed by the regime during its rule. As

6364-414: Was appealing to ordinary people. These include Czterdziestolatek (1975–1978), Alternatywy 4 (1986–1987) and Zmiennicy (1987–1988). The wide range of topics covered featured petty disputes in the block of flats , work issues, human behaviour and interaction as well as comedy, sarcasm, drama and satire . Every televised show was censored if necessary and political content was erased. Ridiculing

6450-557: Was awarded 394 seats to only 28 for the PSL. Mikołajczyk immediately resigned to protest this so-called 'implausible result' and fled to the United Kingdom in April rather than face arrest. Later, some historians announced that the official results were only obtained through massive fraud. Government officials didn't even count the real votes in many areas and simply filled in the relevant documents in accordance with instructions from

6536-478: Was centered on massive borrowing, mainly from the United States and West Germany , to re-equip and modernize Polish industry, and to import consumer goods to give the workers some incentive to work. While it boosted the Polish economy, and is still remembered as the "Golden Age" of socialist Poland, it left the country vulnerable to global economic fluctuations and Western undermining, and the repercussions in

6622-547: Was established in June 1946 with the communists holding a majority of key posts, and with Soviet support they soon gained almost total control of the country. In June 1946, the " Three Times Yes " referendum was held on a number of issues—abolition of the Senate of Poland , land reform, and making the Oder–Neisse line Poland's western border. The communist-controlled Interior Ministry issued results showing that all three questions passed overwhelmingly. Years later, however, evidence

6708-445: Was forced to export everything it could, particularly food and coal, to service its massive debt, which would reach US$ 23 billion by 1980. In 1981, Poland notified Club de Paris (a group of Western-European central banks) of its insolvency, and a series of negotiations on the repayment of its foreign debt was completed between 1989 and 1991. The party was forced to raise prices, which led to further large-scale social unrest and

6794-510: Was in poor health, was finally removed from office and replaced as Party leader by Stanisław Kania . However, Kania was unable to find an answer for the fast-eroding support of communism in Poland. Labour turmoil led to the formation of the independent trade union Solidarity ( Solidarność ) in September 1980, originally led by Lech Wałęsa . In fact, Solidarity became a broad anti-communist social movement ranging from people associated with

6880-399: Was introduced in 1971. Most reliable sources of information in the 1950s were newspapers, most notably Trybuna Ludu (People's Tribune). The chief newscast under the Polish People's Republic for over 31 years was Dziennik Telewizyjny (Television Journal). Commonly known to the viewers as Dziennik , aired in the years 1958–1989 and was utilized by the Polish United Workers' Party as

6966-446: Was reportedly out of fear of Soviet intervention (see Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981 ). The government then disallowed Solidarity on 8 October 1982. Martial law was formally lifted in July 1983, though many heightened controls on civil liberties and political life, as well as food rationing, remained in place through the mid-to-late-1980s. Jaruzelski stepped down as prime minister in 1985 and became president (chairman of

7052-619: Was soon replaced as party leader by the more pliable Bierut. In 1948, the communists consolidated their power, merging with Cyrankiewicz' faction of the PPS to form the Polish United Workers' Party (known in Poland as 'the Party'), which would monopolise political power in Poland until 1989. In 1949, Polish-born Soviet Marshal Konstantin Rokossovsky became the Minister of National Defence, with

7138-403: Was strengthened through electoral fraud in the 1946 Polish people's referendum and the 1947 Polish parliamentary election . The Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR) became the dominant political faction in a one-party state but the country had more liberal policies than other socialist states due to its strategic location in the Cold War and internal opposition. The state's official name

7224-521: Was targeted at young children, is still broadcast today under a different format. Among the most well-known animations of the 1970s and 1980s in Poland were Reksio , Bolek and Lolek , Krtek (Polish: Krecik) and The Moomins . Countless shows were made relating to Second World War history such as Four Tank-Men and a Dog (1966–1970) and Stakes Larger Than Life with Kapitan Kloss (1967–1968), but were purely fictional and not based on real events. The horrors of war, Soviet invasion and

7310-531: Was the "Republic of Poland" ( Rzeczpospolita Polska ) between 1947 and 1952 in accordance with the temporary Small Constitution of 1947 . The name "People's Republic" was introduced and defined by the Constitution of 1952 . The Polish People's Republic was dissolved following the Revolutions of 1989 and the 1990 Polish presidential election , but the post-communist Third Polish Republic retained

7396-570: Was uncovered showing that the referendum had been tainted by large-scale fraud, and only the third question actually passed. Władysław Gomułka then took advantage of a split in the Polish Socialist Party . One faction, which included Prime Minister Edward Osóbka-Morawski , wanted to join forces with the Peasant Party and form a united front against the communists. Another faction, led by Józef Cyrankiewicz , argued that

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