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47-469: As of 2009 the collection contains more than 2.8 million unique references (mostly to journal articles, conference papers and technical reports), clustered in about 1700 bibliographies, and consists of more than 4.4 Gb (950 Mb gzipped ) of BibTeX entries. More than 600,000 references contain cross-references to citing or cited publications. More than 1 million references contain URLs to online versions of

94-423: A gigabyte (GB) is 10 bytes and specifies the term gibibyte (GiB) to denote 2 bytes. These differences are still readily seen, for example, when a 400 GB drive's capacity is displayed by Microsoft Windows as 372 GB instead of 372 GiB. Analogously, a memory module that is labeled as having the size " 1 GB " has one gibibyte ( 1 GiB ) of storage capacity. In response to litigation over whether

141-408: A " μ " key, so it is necessary to use a key-code; this varies depending on the operating system, physical keyboard layout, and user's language. The LaTeX typesetting system features an SIunitx package in which the units of measurement are spelled out, for example, \qty{3}{\tera\hertz} formats as "3 THz". The use of prefixes can be traced back to the introduction of the metric system in

188-503: A disk with an advertised capacity of, for example, 400 GB (meaning 400 000 000 000 bytes , equal to 372 GiB) might be reported by the operating system as " 372 GB ". For RAM , the JEDEC memory standards use IEEE 100 nomenclature which quote the gigabyte as 1 073 741 824 bytes (2 bytes). The difference between units based on decimal and binary prefixes increases as a semi-logarithmic (linear-log) function—for example,

235-585: A driver, in order to maintain symmetry. The prefixes from tera- to quetta- are based on the Ancient Greek or Ancient Latin numbers from 4 to 10, referring to the 4th through 10th powers of 10 . The initial letter h has been removed from some of these stems and the initial letters z , y , r , and q have been added, ascending in reverse alphabetical order, to avoid confusion with other metric prefixes. When mega and micro were adopted in 1873, there were then three prefixes starting with "m", so it

282-632: A metre. Decimal multiplicative prefixes have been a feature of all forms of the metric system , with six of these dating back to the system's introduction in the 1790s. Metric prefixes have also been used with some non-metric units. The SI prefixes are metric prefixes that were standardised for use in the International System of Units (SI) by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) in resolutions dating from 1960 to 2022. Since 2009, they have formed part of

329-415: A notable example of this usage in software, which report files sizes in decimal units. The binary definition uses powers of the base 2, as does the architectural principle of binary computers . This usage is widely promulgated by some operating systems , such as Microsoft Windows in reference to computer memory (e.g., RAM ). This definition is synonymous with the unambiguous unit gibibyte . Since

376-460: A number of definitions for the non-SI unit, the calorie . There are gram calories and kilogram calories. One kilogram calorie, which equals one thousand gram calories, often appears capitalised and without a prefix (i.e. Cal ) when referring to " dietary calories " in food. It is common to apply metric prefixes to the gram calorie, but not to the kilogram calorie: thus, 1 kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal. Metric prefixes are widely used outside

423-483: A reintroduction of compound prefixes (e.g. kiloquetta- for 10 ) if a driver for prefixes at such scales ever materialises, with a restriction that the last prefix must always be quetta- or quecto- . This usage has not been approved by the BIPM. In written English, the symbol K is often used informally to indicate a multiple of thousand in many contexts. For example, one may talk of a 40K salary ( 40 000 ), or call

470-593: A standard definition of 1000 bytes, as well as a discouraged meaning of 1024 bytes. The latter binary usage originated as compromise technical jargon for byte multiples that needed to be expressed in a power of 2, but lacked a convenient name. As 1024 (2 ) is approximately 1000 (10 ), roughly corresponding to SI multiples, it was used for binary multiples as well. In 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) published standards for binary prefixes , requiring that

517-514: Is a greater chance for finding a freely available full text PDF of a searched publication. Publications are clustered by title and last names of authors, so it is possible to find an extended version (e.g. Technical Report or Thesis ) of an article. There are also generated links to Google Scholar and IEEE Xplore in cases where no full text link was available directly. Almost every bibliographic query may be served in RSS format. The collection

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564-527: Is used in all contexts of science (especially data science ), engineering , business , and many areas of computing , including storage capacities of hard drives , solid-state drives , and tapes , as well as data transmission speeds. The term is also used in some fields of computer science and information technology to denote 1 073 741 824 (1024 or 2 ) bytes, however, particularly for sizes of RAM . Thus, some usage of gigabyte has been ambiguous. To resolve this difficulty, IEC 80000-13 clarifies that

611-781: The ISO/IEC 80000 standard. They are also used in the Unified Code for Units of Measure (UCUM). The BIPM specifies twenty-four prefixes for the International System of Units (SI) . The first uses of prefixes in SI date back to the definition of kilogram after the French Revolution at the end of the 18th century. Several more prefixes came into use, and were recognised by the 1947 IUPAC 14th International Conference of Chemistry before being officially adopted for

658-522: The International System of Units (SI). This is the recommended definition by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). This definition is used in networking contexts and most storage media , particularly hard drives , flash -based storage, and DVDs , and is also consistent with the other uses of the SI prefix in computing, such as CPU clock speeds or measures of performance . The file manager of Mac OS X version 10.6 and later versions are

705-653: The Year 2000 problem the Y2K problem . In these cases, an uppercase K is often used with an implied unit (although it could then be confused with the symbol for the kelvin temperature unit if the context is unclear). This informal postfix is read or spoken as "thousand", "grand", or just "k". The financial and general news media mostly use m or M, b or B, and t or T as abbreviations for million, billion (10 ) and trillion (10 ), respectively, for large quantities, typically currency and population. The medical and automotive fields in

752-534: The year , equal to exactly 31 557 600  seconds ( ⁠365 + 1  / 4 ⁠  days). The unit is so named because it was the average length of a year in the Julian calendar . Long time periods are then expressed by using metric prefixes with the annum, such as megaannum (Ma) or gigaannum (Ga). The SI unit of angle is the radian , but degrees , as well as arc-minutes and arc-seconds , see some scientific use. Common practice does not typically use

799-437: The 11th CGPM conference in 1960. Other metric prefixes used historically include hebdo- (10 ) and micri- (10 ). Double prefixes have been used in the past, such as micromillimetres or millimicrons (now nanometres ), micromicrofarads (μμF; now picofarads , pF), kilomegatonnes (now gigatonnes ), hectokilometres (now 100  kilometres ) and the derived adjective hectokilometric (typically used for qualifying

846-619: The 1790s, long before the 1960 introduction of the SI. The prefixes, including those introduced after 1960, are used with any metric unit, whether officially included in the SI or not (e.g., millidyne and milligauss). Metric prefixes may also be used with some non-metric units, but not, for example, with the non-SI units of time. The units kilogram , gram , milligram , microgram, and smaller are commonly used for measurement of mass . However, megagram, gigagram, and larger are rarely used; tonnes (and kilotonnes, megatonnes, etc.) or scientific notation are used instead. The megagram does not share

893-591: The Latin annus ), is commonly used with metric prefixes: ka , Ma, and Ga. Official policies about the use of SI prefixes with non-SI units vary slightly between the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) and the American National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). For instance, the NIST advises that "to avoid confusion, prefix symbols (and prefix names) are not used with

940-484: The United States use the abbreviations cc or ccm for cubic centimetres. One  cubic centimetre is equal to one  millilitre . For nearly a century, engineers used the abbreviation MCM to designate a "thousand circular mils " in specifying the cross-sectional area of large electrical cables . Since the mid-1990s, kcmil has been adopted as the official designation of a thousand circular mils, but

987-404: The astronomical unit is mentioned in the SI standards as an accepted non-SI unit. Prefixes for the SI standard unit second are most commonly encountered for quantities less than one second. For larger quantities, the system of minutes (60 seconds), hours (60 minutes) and days (24 hours) is accepted for use with the SI and more commonly used. When speaking of spans of time,

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1034-453: The binary and decimal definitions used for "gigabyte" have ended in favour of the manufacturers, with courts holding that the legal definition of gigabyte or GB is 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 (10 ) bytes (the decimal definition). Specifically, the courts held that "the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the 'preferred' one for the purposes of 'U.S. trade and commerce' .... The California Legislature has likewise adopted

1081-873: The capacity of modern computer random-access memory devices, such as DIMM modules, is always a multiple of a power of 1024. It is thus convenient to use prefixes denoting powers of 1024, known as binary prefixes , in describing them. For example, a memory capacity of 1 073 741 824 bytes (1024 B) is conveniently expressed as 1  GiB rather than as 1.074 GB. The former specification is, however, often quoted as "1 GB" when applied to random-access memory. Software allocates memory in varying degrees of granularity as needed to fulfill data structure requirements and binary multiples are usually not required. Other computer capacities and rates, like storage hardware size, data transfer rates, clock speeds , operations per second , etc., do not depend on an inherent base , and are usually presented in decimal units. For example,

1128-460: The class designation. Practically all manufacturers of hard disk drives and flash-memory disk devices continue to define one gigabyte as 1 000 000 000 bytes , which is displayed on the packaging. Some operating systems such as Mac OS X and Ubuntu , and Debian express hard drive capacity or file size using decimal multipliers, while others such as Microsoft Windows report size using binary multipliers. This discrepancy causes confusion, as

1175-499: The decimal kilobyte value is nearly 98% of the kibibyte, a megabyte is under 96% of a mebibyte, and a gigabyte is just over 93% of a gibibyte value. This means that a 300 GB (279 GiB) hard disk might be indicated variously as "300 GB", "279 GB" or "279 GiB", depending on the operating system. As storage sizes increase and larger units are used, these differences become more pronounced. A lawsuit decided in 2019 that arose from alleged breach of contract and other claims over

1222-445: The decimal system for all 'transactions in this state'." Earlier lawsuits had ended in settlement with no court ruling on the question, such as a lawsuit against drive manufacturer Western Digital . Western Digital settled the challenge and added explicit disclaimers to products that the usable capacity may differ from the advertised capacity. Seagate was sued on similar grounds and also settled. Because of their physical design,

1269-471: The first disk drive, the IBM 350 , disk drive manufacturers expressed hard drive capacities using decimal prefixes. With the advent of gigabyte-range drive capacities, manufacturers labelled many consumer hard drive , solid-state drive and USB flash drive capacities in certain size classes expressed in decimal gigabytes, such as "500 GB". The exact capacity of a given drive model is usually slightly larger than

1316-432: The first time in 1960. The most recent prefixes adopted were ronna- , quetta- , ronto- , and quecto- in 2022, after a proposal from British metrologist Richard J. C. Brown. The large prefixes ronna- and quetta- were adopted in anticipation of needs for use in data science, and because unofficial prefixes that did not meet SI requirements were already circulating. The small prefixes were also added, even without such

1363-515: The flexibility allowed by official policy in the case of the degree Celsius (°C). NIST states: "Prefix symbols may be used with the unit symbol °C and prefix names may be used with the unit name degree Celsius . For example, 12 m°C (12 millidegrees Celsius) is acceptable." In practice, it is more common for prefixes to be used with the kelvin when it is desirable to denote extremely large or small absolute temperatures or temperature differences. Thus, temperatures of star interiors may be given with

1410-480: The fuel consumption measures). These are not compatible with the SI. Other obsolete double prefixes included "decimilli-" (10 ), which was contracted to "dimi-" and standardised in France up to 1961. There are no more letters of the Latin alphabet available for new prefixes (all the unused letters are already used for units). As such, Richard J.C. Brown (who proposed the prefixes adopted for 10 and 10 ) has proposed

1457-532: The gigabyte strictly denote 1000 bytes and gibibyte denote 1024 bytes. By the end of 2007, the IEC Standard had been adopted by the IEEE , EU , and NIST , and in 2009 it was incorporated in the International System of Quantities . Nevertheless, the term gigabyte continues to be widely used with the following two different meanings: Based on powers of 10, this definition uses the prefix giga- as defined in

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1504-422: The hectolitre (100 litres). Larger volumes are usually denoted in kilolitres, megalitres or gigalitres, or else in cubic metres (1 cubic metre = 1 kilolitre) or cubic kilometres (1 cubic kilometre = 1 teralitre). For scientific purposes, the cubic metre is usually used. The kilometre, metre, centimetre, millimetre, and smaller units are common. The decimetre is rarely used. The micrometre is often referred to by

1551-418: The length of the day is usually standardised to 86 400  seconds so as not to create issues with the irregular leap second . Larger multiples of the second such as kiloseconds and megaseconds are occasionally encountered in scientific contexts, but are seldom used in common parlance. For long-scale scientific work, particularly in astronomy , the Julian year or annum (a) is a standardised variant of

1598-582: The makers of electronic storage devices must conform to Microsoft Windows' use of a binary definition of "GB" instead of the metric/decimal definition, the United States District Court for the Northern District of California rejected that argument, ruling that "the U.S. Congress has deemed the decimal definition of gigabyte to be the 'preferred' one for the purposes of 'U.S. trade and commerce. ' " The term gigabyte has

1645-414: The manufacturer of a "300 GB" hard drive is claiming a capacity of 300 000 000 000 bytes , not 300 × 1024 (which would be 322 122 547 200 ) bytes. The "gigabyte" symbol is encoded by Unicode at code point U+3387 ㎇ SQUARE GB . SI prefix A metric prefix is a unit prefix that precedes a basic unit of measure to indicate a multiple or submultiple of

1692-429: The metric SI system. Common examples include the megabyte and the decibel . Metric prefixes rarely appear with imperial or US units except in some special cases (e.g., microinch, kilofoot, kilopound ). They are also used with other specialised units used in particular fields (e.g., megaelectronvolt , gigaparsec , millibarn , kilodalton ). In astronomy, geology, and palaeontology, the year , with symbol 'a' (from

1739-453: The older non-SI name micron , which is officially deprecated. In some fields, such as chemistry , the ångström (0.1 nm) has been used commonly instead of the nanometre. The femtometre , used mainly in particle physics, is sometimes called a fermi . For large scales, megametre, gigametre, and larger are rarely used. Instead, ad hoc non-metric units are used, such as the solar radius , astronomical units , light years , and parsecs ;

1786-593: The papers. Abstracts are available for more than 1 million entries. There are more than 2,000 links to other sites carrying bibliographic information. As the Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies consists of many subcollections there is a substantial overlap (roughly 1/3). At the end of 2008 there were more than 4.2 million records which represent about 2.8 million unique (in terms of normalized title and authors' last names) bibliographic entries. The number of duplicates may be seen as an advantage, because there

1833-423: The prefixes formerly used in the metric system have fallen into disuse and were not adopted into the SI. The decimal prefix for ten thousand, myria- (sometimes spelt myrio- ), and the early binary prefixes double- (2×) and demi- ( ⁠ 1 / 2 ⁠ ×) were parts of the original metric system adopted by France in 1795, but were not retained when the SI prefixes were internationally adopted by

1880-477: The risk of confusion that the tonne has with other units with the name "ton". The kilogram is the only coherent unit of the International System of Units that includes a metric prefix. The litre (equal to a cubic decimetre), millilitre (equal to a cubic centimetre), microlitre, and smaller are common. In Europe, the centilitre is often used for liquids, and the decilitre is used less frequently. Bulk agricultural products, such as grain, beer and wine, often use

1927-440: The time-related unit symbols (names) min (minute), h (hour), d (day); nor with the angle-related symbols (names) ° (degree), ′ (minute), and ″ (second)", whereas the BIPM adds information about the use of prefixes with the symbol as for arcsecond when they state: "However astronomers use milliarcsecond, which they denote mas, and microarcsecond, μas, which they use as units for measuring very small angles." Some of

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1974-415: The unit of MK (megakelvin), and molecular cooling may be given with the unit mK (millikelvin). In use the joule and kilojoule are common, with larger multiples seen in limited contexts. In addition, the kilowatt-hour , a composite unit formed from the kilowatt and hour, is often used for electrical energy; other multiples can be formed by modifying the prefix of watt (e.g. terawatt-hour). There exist

2021-418: The unit. All metric prefixes used today are decadic . Each prefix has a unique symbol that is prepended to any unit symbol. The prefix kilo- , for example, may be added to gram to indicate multiplication by one thousand: one kilogram is equal to one thousand grams. The prefix milli- , likewise, may be added to metre to indicate division by one thousand; one millimetre is equal to one thousandth of

2068-400: The user interest in the service was vanishingly small. Gigabyte The gigabyte ( / ˈ ɡ ɪ ɡ ə b aɪ t , ˈ dʒ ɪ ɡ ə b aɪ t / ) is a multiple of the unit byte for digital information. The prefix giga means 10 in the International System of Units (SI). Therefore, one gigabyte is one billion bytes. The unit symbol for the gigabyte is GB . This definition

2115-598: Was created, it included the " μ " symbol for micro at codepoint 0xB5 ; later, the whole of ISO 8859-1 was incorporated into the initial version of Unicode . Many fonts that support both characters render them identical, but because the micro sign and the Greek lower-case letter have different applications (normally, a Greek letter would be used with other Greek letters, but the micro sign is never used like that), some fonts render them differently, e.g. Linux Libertine and Segoe UI . Most English-language keyboards do not have

2162-520: Was necessary to use some other symbol besides upper and lowercase 'm'. Eventually the Greek letter "μ" was adopted. However, with the lack of a "μ" key on most typewriters, as well as computer keyboards, various other abbreviations remained common, including "mc", "mic", and "u". From about 1960 onwards, "u" prevailed in type-written documents. Because ASCII , EBCDIC , and other common encodings lacked code-points for " μ ", this tradition remained even as computers replaced typewriters. When ISO 8859-1

2209-479: Was started in 1993 by Alf-Christian Achilles with a simple email-based interface and limited number of entries. One year later the first web interface has been made available. Since then the Collection was maintained by Achilles in his spare time. At the end of 2002 the maintenance has been handed over to Paul Ortyl . As of August 2023, the service has been discontinued, the URL (domain name) has been dropped by KIT and

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