120-707: The Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR ) is an American think tank specializing in U.S. foreign policy and international relations . Founded in 1921, it is an independent and nonpartisan 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization . CFR is based in New York City , with an additional office in Washington, D.C. Its membership has included senior politicians, secretaries of state , CIA directors, bankers, lawyers, professors, corporate directors, CEOs, and prominent media figures. CFR meetings convene government officials, global business leaders, and prominent members of
240-652: A Senate investigation into private banking and the causes of the Great Depression . During the last two decades of his career, Davis represented large corporations before the Supreme Court, challenging the constitutionality and application of New Deal legislation. He lost many of these cases but scored a major victory in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952), in which the Supreme Court ruled against President Harry Truman 's seizure of
360-485: A Ukrainian-born billionaire with close links to Vladimir Putin . The council was reported to be under fire from its own members and dozens of international affairs experts over its acceptance of a $ 12 million gift to fund an internship program. Fifty-five international relations scholars and Russia experts wrote a letter to the organization's board and CFR president Richard N. Haass : "It is our considered view that Blavatnik uses his 'philanthropy'—funds obtained by and with
480-412: A Young Professionals Briefing Series designed for young leaders interested in international relations to be eligible for term membership. Women were excluded from membership until the 1960s. As of 2024, members of CFR's board of directors include: The Council on Foreign Relations received a three-star rating (out of four stars) from Charity Navigator in fiscal year 2016, as measured by an analysis of
600-557: A clockmaker in the Shenandoah Valley . In 1816, his grandfather, John Davis, moved to Clarksburg in what would later become West Virginia . Its population then was 600–700, and he ran a saddle and harness business. His father, John James Davis , attended Lexington Law School, which later became the Washington and Lee University School of Law . By the age of twenty, John J. had established a law practice in Clarksburg. He
720-455: A divided Supreme Court, even after the matter was re-argued after the death of Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson . After the Supreme Court unanimously ruled against his client's position, he returned the $ 25,000 (equivalent to $ 300,000 in 2023), that he had received from South Carolina, although he was not required to do so, but kept a silver tea service that had been presented to him. It has also been reported that he never charged South Carolina in
840-684: A landslide to incumbent President Coolidge. Davis did not seek public office again after 1924. He continued as a prominent attorney, associated with several law firms over the years, and represented many of the largest companies in the United States from the 1920s onwards. Davis argued 140 cases before the U.S. Supreme Court . In addition to his legal work, Davis was also involved in the New York City Bar Association, serving as its president from 1931 to 1933. In 1933, he represented J. P. Morgan Jr. and his companies during
960-521: A larger mosaic that concentrates all the EPA's enemies against it at one time." According to the progressive media watchdog Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting , both left-wing and right-wing policy institutes are often quoted and rarely identified as such. The result is that think tank "experts" are sometimes depicted as neutral sources without any ideological predispositions when, in fact, they represent
1080-413: A meeting arranged for Davis with a delegation of Irish Catholics from New York: Davis went down the line shaking hands cordially but with the dignity with which he would have passed down the line at a diplomatic reception. It was a fine cordiality, but not the kind these men understood. He should have punched them playfully in the chest or slapped them vigorously on the shoulder. Then he turned and looked at
1200-590: A minimum of three others. Visiting fellows are prohibited from applying for membership until they have completed their fellowship tenure. Corporate membership is divided into "Associates", "Affiliates", "President's Circle", and "Founders". All corporate executive members have opportunities to hear speakers, including foreign heads of state, chairmen and CEOs of multinational corporations, and U.S. officials and Congressmen. President and premium members are also entitled to attend small, private dinners or receptions with senior American officials and world leaders. The CFR has
1320-608: A minimum wage law, and an eight-hour law. Davis's diary also noted how prime minister David Lloyd George stated “that not only was his programme liberal but so liberal that his programme shocked an American Democrat.” Davis was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1924. Davis was a dark horse candidate for the Democratic nomination for president in both 1920 and 1924. His friend and partner Frank Polk managed his campaign at
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#17327719229531440-421: A new direction for Eisenhower's foreign policy: "There is no local defense which alone will contain the mighty land power of the communist world. Local defenses must be reinforced by the further deterrent of massive retaliatory power." After this speech, the council convened a session on "Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy" and chose Henry Kissinger to head it. Kissinger spent the following academic year working on
1560-1147: A number of categories and presents its findings in the Global Go-To Think Tanks rating index. However, this method of the study and assessment of policy institutes has been criticized by researchers such as Enrique Mendizabal and Goran Buldioski, Director of the Think Tank Fund, assisted by the Open Society Institute . Think tanks may attempt to broadly inform the public by holding conferences to discuss issues which they may broadcast; encouraging scholars to give public lectures, testifying before committees of governmental bodies; publishing and widely distributing books, magazines, newsletters or journals; creating mailing lists to distribute new publications; and engaging in social media. Think tanks may privately influence policy by having their members accept bureaucratic positions, having members serve on political advisory boards, inviting policy-makers to events, allowing individuals to work at
1680-511: A number of think tanks that are in the form of governmental, non-governmental, and corporate organizations. In China a number of think tanks are sponsored by governmental agencies such as Development Research Center of the State Council , but still retain sufficient non-official status to be able to propose and debate ideas more freely. In January 2012, the first non-official think tank in mainland China, South Non-Governmental Think-Tank,
1800-659: A particular perspective. In the United States, think tank publications on education are subjected to expert review by the National Education Policy Center 's "Think Twice" think tank review project. A 2014 New York Times report asserted that foreign governments buy influence at many United States think tanks. According to the article: "More than a dozen prominent Washington research groups have received tens of millions of dollars from foreign governments in recent years while pushing United States government officials to adopt policies that often reflect
1920-592: A pejorative context to the human brain itself when commenting on an individual's failings (in the sense that something was wrong with that person's "think tank"). Around 1958, the first organization to be regularly described in published writings as "the Think Tank" (note the title case and the use of the definite article ) was the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences . However,
2040-598: A phenomenon in the United Kingdom in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with most of the rest being established in other English-speaking countries. Prior to 1945, they tended to focus on the economic issues associated with industrialization and urbanization. During the Cold War , many more American and other Western think tanks were established, which often guided government Cold War policy. Since 1991, more think tanks have been established in non-Western parts of
2160-590: A range of economic and governance issues confronting Ghana and Sub-Saharan Africa . It has also been involved in bringing political parties together to engage in dialogue. In particular it has organised Presidential debates every election year since the Ghanaian presidential election, 1996 . Notable think tanks in Ghana include: Afghanistan has a number of think tanks that are in the form of governmental, non-governmental, and corporate organizations. Bangladesh has
2280-865: A reborn Southern patriotism, a distrust of the Republican Party, and a resurgence of Anglophilism. Davis proselytized in London for the League of Nations based on his paternalistic belief that peace depended primarily on Anglo-American friendship and leadership. He was disappointed by Wilson's mismanagement of the treaty ratification and by Republican isolationism and distrust of the League. In his diaries Davis kept records of various developments in British politics at that time, such as social reform proposals and enactments such as unemployment insurance, profit-sharing,
2400-626: A shower of leaden death, but often with the frown of a revengeful and angry tyrant bent upon him. Fellow classmates of 1895, shall we ... prove unworthy? After graduation, Davis obtained the three signatures required to receive his law license (one from a local judge, and two from local attorneys, who attested to his proficiency in the law and upstanding moral character) and joined his father in practice in Clarksburg. They called their partnership Davis and Davis, Attorneys at Law. Davis lost his first three cases before his fortunes began to turn. Before Davis had completed his first year of private practice, he
2520-447: A teacher for Major Edward H. McDonald of Charles Town, West Virginia . Davis taught McDonald's nine children and his six nieces and nephews. His student Julia, nineteen at the time, later became Davis's wife. Davis fulfilled a nine-month contract with McDonald. He returned to Clarksburg and apprenticed at his father's law practice. For fourteen months he copied documents by hand, read cases, and did much of what other aspiring lawyers did at
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#17327719229532640-584: A trustee of the Rockefeller Foundation from 1922 to 1939. Davis also served as a delegate from New York to the 1928 and 1932 Democratic National Conventions . In the 1932 presidential election Davis campaigned in behalf of Franklin D. Roosevelt , but never developed a close relationship with him. After Roosevelt took office, Davis quickly turned against the New Deal and joined with Al Smith and other anti-New Deal Democrats in forming
2760-499: A veritable proliferation of "think tanks" around the world that began during the 1980s as a result of globalization, the end of the Cold War , and the emergence of transnational problems. Two-thirds of all the think tanks that exist today were established after 1970 and more than half were established since 1980. The effect of globalisation on the proliferation of think tanks is most evident in regions such as Africa, Eastern Europe, Central Asia, and parts of Southeast Asia, where there
2880-407: A voter registered in 1866 (i.e. whites) from a literacy test that effectively disenfranchised blacks. Davis's personal posture differed from his position as an advocate. Throughout his career, he could separate his personal views and professional advocacy. Davis served as President Wilson's ambassador to Great Britain from 1918 to 1921. He reflected deep Southern support for Wilsonianism , based on
3000-625: Is a research institute that performs research and advocacy concerning topics such as social policy , political strategy , economics , military , technology , and culture . Most think tanks are non-governmental organizations , but some are semi-autonomous agencies within a government, and some are associated with particular political parties, businesses, or the military. Think tanks are often funded by individual donations, with many also accepting government grants. Think tanks publish articles and studies, and sometimes draft legislation on particular matters of policy or society. This information
3120-608: Is a global think tank that works on issues such as Water Diplomacy , Peace and Conflict and Foresight (futures studies) . Think tanks with a development focus include those like the National Centre for Cold-chain Development ('NCCD'), which serve to bring an inclusive policy change by supporting the Planning Commission and related government bodies with industry-specific inputs – in this case, set up at
3240-655: Is collaboration between policy institutes in different countries. For instance, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace operates offices in Washington, D.C. , Beijing , Beirut , Brussels and formerly in Moscow , where it was closed in April 2022. The Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program (TTCSP) at the University of Pennsylvania , led by James McGann , annually rates policy institutes worldwide in
3360-452: Is done in public think tanks. There is a strong emphasis on the knowledge-based economy and, according to one respondent, think tank research is generally considered high quality. Japan has over 100 think tanks, most of which cover not only policy research but also economy, technology and so on. Some are government related, but most of the think tanks are sponsored by the private sector. Institute of World Economics and Politics (IWEP) at
3480-458: Is the organization's 15th president. In September 1917, near the end of World War I , President Woodrow Wilson established a working fellowship of about 150 scholars called " The Inquiry ", tasked with briefing him about options for the postwar world after Germany was defeated. This academic group, directed by Wilson's closest adviser and long-time friend "Colonel" Edward M. House , and with Walter Lippmann as Head of Research, met to assemble
3600-452: Is then used by governments, businesses, media organizations, social movements or other interest groups. Think tanks range from those associated with highly academic or scholarly activities to those that are overtly ideological and pushing for particular policies, with a wide range among them in terms of the quality of their research. Later generations of think tanks have tended to be more ideologically oriented. Modern think tanks began as
3720-674: Is to maintain analytical and research support for the President of Kazakhstan. Most Malaysian think tanks are related either to the government or a political party. Historically they focused on defense, politics and policy. However, in recent years, think tanks that focus on international trade, economics, and social sciences have also been founded. Notable think tanks in Malaysia include: Pakistan's think tanks mainly revolve around social policy, internal politics, foreign security issues, and regional geo-politics. Most of these are centered on
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3840-549: The Académie des frères Dupuy , created in Paris around 1620 by the brothers Pierre and Jacques Dupuy and also known after 1635 as the cabinet des frères Dupuy . The Club de l'Entresol , active in Paris between 1723 and 1731, was another prominent example of an early independent think tank focusing on public policy and current affairs, especially economics and foreign affairs. Several major current think tanks were founded in
3960-431: The 1924 Democratic National Convention . He won the nomination in 1924 as a compromise candidate on the 103rd ballot, after intense infighting between supporters of candidates former Secretary of Treasury William Gibbs McAdoo and New York Governor Al Smith , Davis was selected to appease both sides. Although Tennessee 's Andrew Johnson served as president after Lincoln was assassinated , Davis's nomination made him
4080-688: The American Liberty League . He supported the Republican presidential candidate in the 1936, 1940, and 1944 elections. Davis was implicated by retired Marine Corps Major General Smedley Butler in the Business Plot , an alleged political conspiracy in 1933 to overthrow Roosevelt, in testimony before the McCormack-Dickstein Committee, whose deliberations began on November 20, 1934, and culminated in
4200-548: The Democratic Party , even as he later represented the interests of business opposed to the New Deal . Davis ranked as one of the last Jeffersonians , as he supported states' rights and opposed a strong executive (he would be the lead attorney against Truman's nationalization of the steel industry). In 1898, Davis was elected to the West Virginia House of Delegates , ending a 20-year Republican hold on
4320-538: The U.S. Supreme Court . His firm, variously titled Stetson Jennings Russell & Davis, then Davis Polk Wardwell Gardiner & Reed, then Davis Polk Wardwell Sunderland & Kiendl (now Davis Polk & Wardwell ), represented many of the largest companies in the United States in the 1920s and following decades. From 1931 to 1933, Davis also served as president of the New York City Bar Association . In 1933, Davis served as legal counsel for
4440-538: The 1940s, most think tanks were known only by the name of the institution. During the Second World War, think tanks were often referred to as "brain boxes". Before the 1950s, the phrase "think tank" did not refer to organizations. From its first appearances in the 1890s up to the 1950s, the phrase was most commonly used in American English to colloquially refer to the braincase or especially in
4560-702: The 1970s, the phrase became more specifically defined in terms of RAND and others. During the 1980s and 1990s, the phrase evolved again to arrive at its broader contemporary meaning of an independent public policy research institute. For most of the 20th century, such institutes were found primarily in the United States, along with much smaller numbers in Canada, the United Kingdom, and Western Europe. Although think tanks had also existed in Japan for some time, they generally lacked independence, having close associations with government ministries or corporations. There has been
4680-573: The 19th century. The Royal United Services Institute was founded in 1831 in London , and the Fabian Society in 1884. The oldest United States –based think tank, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , was founded in Washington, D.C. , in 1910 by philanthropist Andrew Carnegie . Carnegie charged trustees to use the fund to "hasten the abolition of international war, the foulest blot upon our civilization." The Brookings Institution
4800-509: The 800s when emperors and kings began arguing with the Catholic Church about taxes. A tradition of hiring teams of independent lawyers to advise monarchs about their financial and political prerogatives against the church spans from Charlemagne all the way to the 17th century, when the kings of France were still arguing about whether they had the right to appoint bishops and receive a cut of their income." Soll cites as an early example
4920-638: The American Committees on Foreign Relations in Washington, D.C. , throughout the country, funded by a grant from the Carnegie Corporation . Influential men were to be chosen in a number of cities, and would then be brought together for discussions in their own communities as well as participating in an annual conference in New York. These local committees served to influence local leaders and shape public opinion to build support for
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5040-991: The British developing the Royal Institute of International Affairs (known as Chatham House ) in London. Due to the isolationist views prevalent in American society at that time, the scholars had difficulty gaining traction with their plan and turned their focus instead to a set of discreet meetings which had been taking place since June 1918 in New York City, under the name "Council on Foreign Relations". The meetings were headed by corporate lawyer Elihu Root , who had served as Secretary of State under President Theodore Roosevelt , and attended by 108 "high-ranking officers of banking, manufacturing, trading and finance companies, together with many lawyers". The members were proponents of Wilson's internationalism , but they were particularly concerned about "the effect that
5160-603: The Center does not count itself as and is not perceived to be a think tank in the contemporary sense. During the 1960s, the phrase "think tank" was attached more broadly to meetings of experts, electronic computers , and independent military planning organizations. The prototype and most prominent example of the third category was the RAND Corporation , which was founded in 1946 as an offshoot of Douglas Aircraft and became an independent corporation in 1948. In
5280-481: The Committee's report to the U.S. House of Representatives on February 15, 1935. Davis was not called to testify because "The committee will not take cognizance of names brought into the testimony which constitute mere hearsay." In 1949 Davis, as a member of the board of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , testified as a character witness for Alger Hiss (Carnegie's president) during his trials (part of
5400-626: The Council's policies, while also acting as "useful listening posts" through which the Council and U.S. government could "sense the mood of the country". During the Second World War , the Council achieved much greater prominence within the government and the State Department , when it established the strictly confidential War and Peace Studies , funded entirely by the Rockefeller Foundation . The secrecy surrounding this group
5520-485: The Court decided 6–3 to uphold the injunction stopping the seizure of the steel mills. Washington Post writer Chalmers Roberts subsequently wrote that rarely "has a courtroom sat in such silent admiration for a lawyer at the bar" in reference to Davis's oral argument. Unfortunately, Davis did not allow the oral argument to be printed because the stenographic transcript was so garbled he feared it would not be close to what
5640-434: The Court. He described Truman's acts as a " 'usurpation' of power, that were 'without parallel in American history. ' " The justices allowed him to proceed uninterrupted, with only one question from Justice Felix Frankfurter , who may have had a personal feeling against Davis relating to his 1924 presidential campaign. It had been predicted that the President's actions would be upheld, and the injunction would be lifted, but
5760-636: The Foundation of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan was created in 2003. IWEP activities aimed at research problems of the world economy, international relations, geopolitics, security, integration and Eurasia, as well as the study of the First President of the Republic of Kazakhstan and its contribution to the establishment and strengthening of Kazakhstan as an independent state,
5880-590: The Harold Pratt House to study alongside its scholars. The Army, Navy and Marine Corps requested they start similar programs for their own officers. A four-year-long study of relations between America and China was conducted by the Council between 1964 and 1968. One study published in 1966 concluded that American citizens were more open to talks with China than their elected leaders. Henry Kissinger had continued to publish in Foreign Affairs and
6000-617: The Hiss- Chambers Case): "In the twilight of his career, following the end of World War II, Davis publicly supported Alger Hiss and J. Robert Oppenheimer during the hysteria of the McCarthy hearings" (more accurately, the "McCarthy Era" as the Hiss Case (1948–1950) preceded McCarthyism in the 1950s). Davis was one of the most prominent and successful lawyers of the first half of the 20th century, arguing 140 cases before
6120-595: The Philippines could be generally categorized in terms of their linkages with the national government. Several were set up by the Philippine government for the specific purpose of providing research input into the policy-making process. Sri Lanka has a number of think tanks that are in the form of governmental, non-governmental and corporate organizations. There are several think tanks in Singapore that advise
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#17327719229536240-522: The President could seize private industry in a "National Emergency." Davis wrote that the President could not do so, unless such power already was vested in the President by law. He further went on to opine on the Selective Service Act of 1948's intent, and that seizures were only authorized if a company did not sufficiently prioritize government production in a time of crisis. Arguing for the steel industry, Davis spoke for 87 minutes before
6360-660: The Russians of any desire to launch an attack on America; he thought that it was obvious enough and he did not need to explain it in his essay. William Bundy credited CFR's study groups with helping to lay the framework of thinking that led to the Marshall Plan and NATO . Due to new interest in the group, membership grew towards 1,000. Dwight D. Eisenhower chaired a CFR study group while he served as President of Columbia University . One member later said, "whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at
6480-690: The State Department to admit the Shah of Iran, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , into the US for hospital treatment for lymphoma . This action directly precipitated what is known as the Iran hostage crisis and placed Rockefeller under intense media scrutiny (particularly from The New York Times ) for the first time in his public life. In his book, White House Diary , Carter wrote of the affair, "April 9 [1979] David Rockefeller came in, apparently to induce me to let
6600-473: The State Department, which were marked classified and circulated among the appropriate government departments. A critical study found that of 502 government officials surveyed from 1945 to 1972, more than half were members of the Council. During the Eisenhower administration 40% of the top U.S. foreign policy officials were CFR members (Eisenhower himself had been a council member); under Truman , 42% of
6720-585: The Supreme Court was in Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer in May 1952, when the Court ruled on President Truman's seizure of the nation's steel plants. While Davis wasn't brought into the case until March 1952, he was already familiar with the concept of a presidential seizure of a steel mill. In 1949, the Republic Steel Company, fearful of advice given to Truman by Attorney General Tom C. Clark , asked Davis for an opinion letter on whether
6840-571: The Supreme Court, 73 were as Solicitor General, and 67 as a private lawyer. Lawrence Wallace , who retired from the Office of the Solicitor General in 2003, argued 157 cases during his career but many believe that few attorneys have argued more cases than Davis. Daniel Webster and Walter Jones are believed to have argued more cases than Davis, but they were lawyers of a much earlier era. One of Davis's most influential arguments before
6960-581: The Supreme Court, in which he unsuccessfully defended the " separate but equal " doctrine in Briggs v. Elliott , a companion case to Brown v. Board of Education . Davis, as a defender of racial segregation and state control of education, uncharacteristically displayed his emotions in arguing that South Carolina had shown good faith in attempting to eliminate any inequality between black and white schools and should be allowed to continue to do so without judicial intervention. He expected to win, most likely through
7080-703: The U.S. House from 1911 to 1913, helping to write the Clayton Antitrust Act . He held the position of solicitor general in the Justice Department from 1913 to 1918, during which time he successfully argued for the unconstitutionality of the grandfather clause in Oklahoma 's constitution, which had a discriminatory effect against African-American voters, in Guinn v. United States . While serving as ambassador to Britain from 1918 to 1921, Davis
7200-765: The United Kingdom . He was the Democratic nominee for president in 1924 , losing to Republican incumbent Calvin Coolidge . Davis was born and raised in West Virginia , where his father, John James Davis , had been a delegate to the Wheeling Convention and served in the U.S. House of Representatives in the 1870s. Davis joined his father's legal practice and adopted many of his father's political views, including opposition to anti-lynching legislation and support for states' rights . Davis served in
7320-538: The actions of think tanks and potentially bypass the political process, analysing the social background and values of those who work in think tanks. Pautz criticizes this viewpoint because there is in practice a variety of viewpoints in think tanks and argues it dismisses the influence that ideas can have. In some cases, corporate interests, military interests and political groups have found it useful to create policy institutes, advocacy organizations, and think tanks. For example, The Advancement of Sound Science Coalition
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#17327719229537440-428: The age of 81. He is interred at Locust Valley Cemetery in Locust Valley, New York . The John W. Davis Federal Building on West Pike Street in Clarksburg, West Virginia , is named for him. The building housing the Student Health Center at Washington and Lee University is named for him, as is the Law School's appellate advocacy program, and an award for the graduating student with the highest grade point average. In
7560-458: The behest of the government to direct cold chain development. Some think tanks have a fixed set of focus areas and they work towards finding out policy solutions to social problems in the respective areas. Initiatives such as National e-Governance Plan (to automate administrative processes) and National Knowledge Network (NKN) (for data and resource sharing amongst education and research institutions), if implemented properly, should help improve
7680-561: The capital, Islamabad . One such think tank is the Sustainable Development Policy Institute (SDPI), which focuses on policy advocacy and research particularly in the area of environment and social development. Another policy research institute based in Islamabad is the Institute of Social and Policy Sciences (I-SAPS) which works in the fields of education, health, disaster risk reduction, governance , conflict and stabilization. Since 2007 - 2008, I-SAPS has been analyzing public expenditure of federal and provincial governments. Think tanks in
7800-431: The consent of the Kremlin, at the expense of the state budget and the Russian people—at leading western academic and cultural institutions to advance his access to political circles. We regard this as another step in the longstanding effort of Mr. Blavatnik—who ... has close ties to the Kremlin and its kleptocratic network—to launder his image in the West." Think tank A think tank , or public policy institute,
7920-422: The construction of a discourse coalition with a common aim, citing the example of deregulation of trucking, airlines, and telecommunications in the 1970s. Plejwe argues that this deregulation represented a discourse coalition between the Ford Motor Company , FedEx , neo-liberal economists, the Brookings Institution and the American Enterprise Institute . Elite theory considers how an "elite" influence
8040-419: The council's financial data and "accountability and transparency". In fiscal year 2023, the council received a four-star rating (98 percent) from Charity Navigator. In an article for the Washington Post , Richard Harwood described the membership of the CFR as "the nearest thing we have to a ruling establishment in the United States". In 2019, CFR was criticized for accepting a donation from Len Blavatnik ,
8160-411: The development of international cooperation and the promotion of peace and stability. The Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the RK (KazISS) was established by the Decree of the President of RK on 16 June 1993. Since its foundation the main mission of the Kazakhstan Institute for Strategic Studies under the President of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as a national think tank,
8280-424: The discussions there. As a result of discussions at the Peace Conference, a small group of British and American diplomats and scholars met on May 30, 1919, at the Hotel Majestic in Paris. They decided to create an Anglo-American organization called "The Institute of International Affairs", which would have offices in London and New York. Ultimately, the British and American delegates formed separate institutes, with
8400-480: The donors' priorities." Ghana's first president, Kwame Nkrumah , set up various state-supported think tanks in the 1960s. By the 1990s, a variety of policy research centers sprang up in Africa set up by academics who sought to influence public policy in Ghana. One such think tank was The Institute of Economic Affairs, Ghana , which was founded in 1989 when the country was ruled by the Provisional National Defence Council . The IEA undertakes and publishes research on
8520-437: The experts they fund for future government jobs, while others want to push specific areas of research or education." McGann distinguishes think tanks based on independence, source of funding and affiliation, grouping think tanks into autonomous and independent, quasi-independent, government affiliated, quasi-governmental, university affiliated, political-party affiliated or corporate. A new trend, resulting from globalization,
8640-467: The financier J.P. Morgan, Jr. and his companies during the Senate investigation into private banking and the causes of the recent Great Depression . The last twenty years of Davis's practice included representing large corporations before the Supreme Court challenging the constitutionality and application of New Deal legislation. Davis lost many of these battles. Of the 140 cases Davis argued before
8760-529: The first issue of Foreign Affairs was published in September 1922. Within a few years, it had gained a reputation as the "most authoritative American review dealing with international relations". In the late 1930s, the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation began financially supporting the Council. In 1938, they created various Committees on Foreign Relations, which later became governed by
8880-692: The first place. He declined to participate further in the case, as he did not wish to be involved in the drafting of decrees to implement the Court's decision. Davis was a member of the American Bar Association , the Council on Foreign Relations , the Freemasons , Phi Beta Kappa , and Phi Kappa Psi . He was a resident of Nassau County, New York , and practiced law in New York City until his death in Charleston, South Carolina , at
9000-647: The first presidential candidate from a former slave state since the Civil War, and as of 2024 he remains the only ever nominee from West Virginia. Davis's denunciation of the Ku Klux Klan and prior defense of black voting rights as solicitor general cost him votes in the South and among conservative Democrats elsewhere. Davis's staid personality ill-suited him for the demands of campaigning in an age of machine politics, as shown by Claude G. Bowers ' description of
9120-582: The first two female journalists hired by the Associated Press in 1926. (The other was probably Marguerite Young . ) Julia married first Charles P. Healy and later William McMillan Adams, president of Sprague International, the export subsidiary of Sprague Electric . He was the son of Arthur Henry Adams, president of the United States Rubber Company . Both father and son were aboard the luxury liner RMS Lusitania when it
9240-572: The government on various policies and as well as private ones for corporations within the region. Many of them are hosted within the local public educational institutions. John W. Davis John William Davis (April 13, 1873 – March 24, 1955) was an American politician, diplomat and lawyer. He served under President Woodrow Wilson as the Solicitor General of the United States and the United States Ambassador to
9360-762: The helm of Foreign Affairs after 45 years, new chairman David Rockefeller approached a family friend, William Bundy , to take over the position. Anti-war advocates within the Council rose in protest against this appointment, claiming that Bundy's hawkish record in the State and Defense Departments and the CIA precluded him from taking over an independent journal. Some considered Bundy a war criminal for his prior actions. In November 1979, while chairman of CFR, David Rockefeller became embroiled in an international incident when he and Henry Kissinger, along with John J. McCloy and Rockefeller aides, persuaded President Jimmy Carter through
9480-473: The idea was tabled. Over the next twenty years, the United States would find itself allied with anti-Communist South Vietnam and against Ho and his supporters in the Vietnam War . The Council served as a "breeding ground" for important American policies such as mutual deterrence , arms control , and nuclear non-proliferation . In 1962 the group began a program of bringing select Air Force officers to
9600-505: The intelligence and foreign-policy communities to discuss international issues. CFR publishes the bi-monthly journal Foreign Affairs since 1922. It also runs the David Rockefeller Studies Program, which makes recommendations to presidential administrations and the diplomatic community, testifies before Congress , interacts with the media, and publishes research on foreign policy issues. Michael Froman
9720-620: The legislature, Davis became the Harrison County party chairman for 12 years. He was also a delegate to the 1904 Democratic National Convention and voted for the more conservative candidate, Alton B. Parker . The populism of William Jennings Bryan never appealed to him, and he was pleased to see the Democrats moving in Parker's direction. He represented West Virginia in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1911 to 1913, where he
9840-532: The more established think tanks, created during the Cold War , are focused on international affairs, security studies, and foreign policy. Think tanks vary by ideological perspectives, sources of funding, topical emphasis and prospective consumers. Funding may also represent who or what the institution wants to influence; in the United States, for example, "Some donors want to influence votes in Congress or shape public opinion, others want to position themselves or
9960-401: The nation's steel plants. Davis unsuccessfully defended the " separate but equal " doctrine in Briggs v. Elliott (1952), one of the companion cases to Brown v. Board of Education (1954), in which the Court ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional. Davis's paternal family had roots in western Virginia and what became West Virginia. His great-grandfather, Caleb Davis, was
10080-651: The ongoing conflict between France and Vietnamese Communist leader Ho Chi Minh 's Viet Minh forces, a struggle that would later become known as the First Indochina War . Henderson argued that Ho's cause was primarily nationalist in nature and that Marxism had "little to do with the current revolution." Further, the report said, the United States could work with Ho to guide his movement away from Communism. State Department officials, however, expressed skepticism about direct American intervention in Vietnam and
10200-571: The popular vote ever won by a Democratic presidential nominee. Nonetheless, he won every state of the former Confederacy , plus Oklahoma . Davis was a member of the National Advisory Council of the Crusaders, an influential organization that promoted the repeal of Prohibition . He was the founding president of the Council on Foreign Relations , formed in 1921, chairman of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace , and
10320-617: The project at Council headquarters. The book of the same name that he published from his research in 1957 gave him national recognition, topping the national bestseller lists. CFR played an important role in the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community . CFR promoted a blueprint of the ECSC and helped Jean Monnet promote the ESCS. On November 24, 1953, a study group heard a report from political scientist William Henderson regarding
10440-761: The quality of work done by think tanks. Some notable think tanks in India include: Over 50 think tanks have emerged in Iraq, particularly in the Kurdistan Region. Iraq's leading think tank is the Middle East Research Institute (MERI), based in Erbil. MERI is an independent non-governmental policy research organization, established in 2014 and publishes in English, Kurdish, and Arabic. It
10560-406: The seat. Even though Davis had argued in behalf of some railroad companies during his legal career, he was elected by denouncing them, as his opponent had made enemies by supporting railroad interests. He was touted for speaker, but ended up becoming the Democratic floor leader. He became well known in the legislature, as few, if any, in the body could match his legal abilities. After his one term in
10680-508: The shah come to the United States. Rockefeller, Kissinger, and Brzezinski seem to be adopting this as a joint project". The CFR has two types of membership: life membership; and term membership, which lasts for 5 years and is available only to those between the ages of 30 and 36. Only U.S. citizens (native born or naturalized) and permanent residents who have applied for U.S. citizenship are eligible. A candidate for life membership must be nominated in writing by one Council member and seconded by
10800-562: The state of West Virginia, but he had also opposed the abolitionists and Radical Republicans , and opposed ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment . Davis acquired much of his father's southern Democratic politics, opposing women's suffrage , Federal child-labor laws and anti- lynching legislation, and Harry S. Truman 's civil rights program. He defended states' rights to establish the poll tax by questioning whether uneducated non-taxpayers should be allowed to vote. Davis
10920-553: The strategy for the postwar world. The team produced more than 2,000 documents detailing and analyzing the political, economic, and social facts globally that would be helpful for Wilson in the peace talks. Their reports formed the basis for the Fourteen Points , which outlined Wilson's strategy for peace after the war's end. These scholars then traveled to the Paris Peace Conference 1919 and participated in
11040-490: The study group meetings." The CFR study group devised an expanded study group called "Americans for Eisenhower" to increase his chances for the presidency. Eisenhower would later draw many Cabinet members from CFR ranks and become a CFR member himself. His primary CFR appointment was Secretary of State John Foster Dulles . Dulles gave a public address at the Harold Pratt House in New York City in which he announced
11160-511: The think tank; employing former policy-makers; or preparing studies for policy makers. The role of think tanks has been conceptualized through the lens of social theory. Plehwe argues that think tanks function knowledge actors within a network of relationships with other knowledge actors. Such relationships including citing academics in publications or employing them on advisory boards, as well as relationships with media, political groups and corporate funders. They argue that these links allow for
11280-404: The time to "read the law". Davis graduated with a law degree from Washington and Lee University School of Law in 1895 and was elected Law Class Orator. His speech gave a glimpse of his advocacy skills: [The] lawyer has been always the sentinel of the watchtower of liberty. In all times and all countries has he stood forth in defense of his nation, her laws and liberties, not, it may be, under
11400-629: The top posts were filled by council members. During the Kennedy administration , this number rose to 51%, and peaked at 57% under the Johnson administration . In an anonymous piece called "The Sources of Soviet Conduct" that appeared in Foreign Affairs in 1947, CFR study group member George Kennan coined the term " containment ". The essay would prove to be highly influential in US foreign policy for seven upcoming presidential administrations. Forty years later, Kennan explained that he had never suspected
11520-638: The transfer of sovereignty to China in 1997, more think tanks were established by various groups of intellectuals and professionals. They have various missions and objectives including promoting civic education; undertaking research on economic, social and political policies; and promoting "public understanding of and participation in the political, economic, and social development of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region ". Think tanks in Hong Kong include: India has
11640-464: The visitors, apparently a little shy and uncertain what was expected of him. Finally the vice-chairman spoke. "These men are here to help elect you," he said, almost accusingly. Davis smiled and said, "Strength to their arms. We want every man in the boat and every man with an oar." There was another embarrassing pause, and the vice-chairman surprised me with an impatient outburst. "Tell them you are an organization man!" he roared. Davis admitted he
11760-625: The war and the treaty of peace might have on postwar business". The scholars from the inquiry saw an opportunity to create an organization that brought diplomats, high-level government officials, and academics together with lawyers, bankers, and industrialists to influence government policy. On July 29, 1921, they filed a certification of incorporation , officially forming the Council on Foreign Relations. Founding members included its first honorary president, Elihu Root , and first elected president, John W. Davis , vice-president Paul D. Cravath , and secretary–treasurer Edwin F. Gay . In 1922, Gay, who
11880-547: The world's second-largest number of think tanks . Most are based in New Delhi, and a few are government-sponsored. There are few think tanks that promote environmentally responsible and climate resilient ideas like Centre for Science and Environment , Centre for Policy Research and World Resources Institute . There are other prominent think tanks like Observer Research Foundation , Tillotoma Foundation and Centre for Civil Society . In Mumbai, Strategic Foresight Group
12000-466: The world. More than half of all think tanks that exist today were established after 1980. As of 2023, there are more than 11,000 think tanks around the world. According to historian Jacob Soll , while the term "think tank" is modern, with its origin "traced to the humanist academies and scholarly networks of the 16th and 17th centuries," Soll writes that, "in Europe, the origins of think tanks go back to
12120-427: Was a dark horse candidate for the 1920 Democratic presidential nomination. After he left office, Davis helped establish the Council on Foreign Relations and advocated for the repeal of Prohibition . The 1924 Democratic National Convention nominated Davis for president after 103 ballots. He remains the only major party presidential nominee from West Virginia. Running on a ticket with Charles W. Bryan , Davis lost in
12240-547: Was a concerted effort by other countries to assist in the creation of independent public policy research organizations. A survey performed by the Foreign Policy Research Institute's Think Tanks and Civil Societies Program underscores the significance of this effort and documents the fact that most of the think tanks in these regions have been established since 1992. As of 2014 , there were more than 11,000 of these institutions worldwide. Many of
12360-594: Was a delegate in the Virginia General Assembly , and after the northwestern portion of Virginia broke away from the rest of Virginia in 1863 and formed West Virginia, he was elected to the new state's House of Delegates and later to the United States House of Representatives . John W. Davis's mother Anna Kennedy (1841–1917) was from Baltimore , Maryland, daughter of William Wilson Kennedy and his wife Catherine Esdale Martin. Kennedy
12480-571: Was a former dean of the Harvard Business School and director of the Shipping Board during the war, headed the Council's efforts to begin publication of a magazine that would be the "authoritative" source on foreign policy. He gathered US$ 125,000 (equivalent to $ 2,275,348 in 2023) from the wealthy members on the council, as well as by sending letters soliciting funds to "the thousand richest Americans". Using these funds,
12600-769: Was a lumber merchant. Catherine was the daughter of Tobias Martin, dairy farmer and amateur poet, and his wife, a member of the Esdale family. The Esdales were members of the Religious Society of Friends , or Quakers, who had settled near Valley Forge , Pennsylvania . Reportedly they helped provide support for the Continental Army under George Washington , which had camped there in the winter of 1777–1778. Davis's Sunday school teacher recalled that he had "a noble face even when small". His biographer said that "[h]e used better English, kept himself cleaner, and
12720-534: Was an organization man, looking a bit annoyed by the way he was being put through his paces, and then turned quickly to Mike Hennessy of the Boston Globe and engaged him in conversation. Clearly Davis did not qualify as a backslapping, baby-kissing politician. He lost in a landslide to Calvin Coolidge , who did not leave the White House to campaign. Davis's 28.8 percent remains the smallest percentage of
12840-474: Was appointed by President Richard Nixon to serve as National Security Adviser in 1969. In 1971, he embarked on a secret trip to Beijing to broach talks with Chinese leaders. Nixon went to China in 1972, and diplomatic relations were completely normalized by President Carter 's Secretary of State, another Council member, Cyrus Vance . The Vietnam War created a rift within the organization. When Hamilton Fish Armstrong announced in 1970 that he would be leaving
12960-473: Was as much opposed to centralism in politics as he was to the concentration of capital by large corporations, supporting a number of early progressive laws regulating interstate commerce and limiting the power of corporations. Consequently, he felt distinctly out of place in the Republican Party , which supported free association and free markets, and maintained his father's staunch allegiance to
13080-568: Was enrolled in a previously all-female seminary that doubled as a private boarding and day school. He never had grades under 94. Davis entered Washington and Lee University at the age of sixteen. He graduated in 1892 with a major in Latin. He joined the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, participated in intramural sports, and attended mixed parties. Davis would have started law school directly after graduation, but he lacked funds. Instead, he became
13200-626: Was established in the Guangdong province. In 2009 the China Center for International Economic Exchanges was founded. In Hong Kong, early think tanks established in the late 1980s and early 1990s focused on political development, including the first direct Legislative Council members election in 1991 and the political framework of " One Country, Two Systems ", manifested in the Sino-British Joint Declaration . After
13320-578: Was formed in the mid-1990s to dispute research finding an association between second-hand smoke and cancer . Military contractors may spend a portion of their tender on funding pro-war think tanks. According to an internal memorandum from Philip Morris Companies referring to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), "The credibility of the EPA is defeatable, but not on the basis of ETS [ environmental tobacco smoke ] alone,... It must be part of
13440-516: Was founded shortly thereafter in 1916 by Robert S. Brookings and was conceived as a bipartisan "research center modeled on academic institutions and focused on addressing the questions of the federal government." In the early 1920s, fascist and other far-right think tanks appeared in the Netherlands . After 1945, the number of policy institutes increased, with many small new ones forming to express various issues and policy agendas. Until
13560-631: Was listed in the global ranking by the United States's Lauder Institute of the University of Pennsylvania as 46th in the Middle East. There are many think tank teams in Israel, including: In South Korea , think tanks are prolific and influential and are a government go-to. Think tanks are prolific in the Korean landscape. Many policy research organisations in Korea focus on economoy and most research
13680-400: Was more dignified than most youngsters. He was also extraordinarily well-mannered." Davis's education began at home , as his mother taught him to read before he had memorized the alphabet. She had him read poetry and other literature from their home library. After turning ten, Davis was put in a class with older students to prepare him for the state teachers examination. A few years later, he
13800-487: Was one of the authors of the Clayton Antitrust Act . Davis also served as one of the impeachment managers in the successful impeachment trial of Judge Robert W. Archbald . He served as U.S. Solicitor General from 1913 to 1918. As Solicitor General, he successfully argued in Guinn v. United States for the unconstitutionality of the grandfather clause in Oklahoma's constitution. It exempted residents descended from
13920-615: Was recruited to Washington & Lee Law School as an assistant professor, starting in the fall of 1896. At the time, the law school had a faculty of two, and Davis became the third. At the end of the year, Davis was asked to return but demurred. He decided that he needed the "rough & tumble" of private practice. On June 20, 1899, he married Julia T. McDonald, who died on August 17, 1900. They had one daughter together, Julia McDonald Davis. She later married Charles P. Healy, and then William M. Adams. The widower Davis married again, on January 2, 1912, to Ellen G. Bassel. She died in 1943. Davis
14040-434: Was said at the Court. Of particular note in this case is that one of the justices in the majority was Tom Clark, who as attorney general in 1949 had advised Truman to proceed with the seizure of Republic Steel. Yet, in 1952, Justice Clark voted with the majority without joining Justice Hugo Black 's opinion, in direct opposition to his previous advice. Davis's legal career is most remembered for his final appearance before
14160-575: Was such that the Council members who were not involved in its deliberations were completely unaware of the study group's existence. It was divided into four functional topic groups: economic and financial; security and armaments ; territorial; and political. The security and armaments group was headed by Allen Welsh Dulles , who later became a pivotal figure in the CIA 's predecessor, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). CFR ultimately produced 682 memoranda for
14280-441: Was sunk by a German submarine in 1915. Arthur Adams died; his son survived. Julia and William divorced, and both remarried. She divorced again, and later they remarried in their old age. Adams had two sons by his second wife, John Perry and Arthur Henry Adams II. Julia died in 1993 with no natural children but claimed six "by theft and circumstance." Davis's father had been a delegate to the Wheeling Convention , which had created
14400-464: Was the cousin and adoptive father of Cyrus Vance , who later served as Secretary of State under Jimmy Carter . Vance, born in Clarksburg in 1917, lost his father in 1922 and was sent by his widowed mother to study in Switzerland. The much older and by then quite prominent Davis, referred to as an "uncle" within the family, mentored young Vance and adopted him. Davis's daughter Julia was one of
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