106-396: A counterattack is a tactic employed in response to an attack, with the term originating in " war games ". The general objective is to negate or thwart the advantage gained by the enemy during attack, while the specific objectives typically seek to regain lost ground or destroy the attacking enemy (this may take the form of an opposing sports team or military units ). A counter-offensive
212-419: A defense contractor which was involved in the development of packet switching , used for ARPANET , and which developed the first computer modem in 1963. Military operations and training have included different scenarios a soldier might encounter with morals and different ethics. In one military operation soldiers are frequently asked to engage in combat, humanitarian, and stabilization roles. These increase
318-434: A sand table , map, cloth model, or computer simulation exercise. These allow commanders to manipulate models through possible scenarios in military planning. This is also called warfare simulation, or in some instances a virtual battlefield , and in the past has been described as "wargames". Such examples of modern military wargames include DARWARS , a serious game developed since 2003 by DARPA with BBN Technologies ,
424-469: A strategic goal . A counter-offensive as considered by Clausewitz to be the most efficient means of forcing the attacker to abandon offensive plans. Counter-offensives can be executed not only on land, but also by the naval , and air forces. Strategic counter-offensives have been recorded by military historians in many wars throughout military history . Although not always known as such, because they are usually described by historians in conjunction with
530-495: A contingency, or general warfare. The use of military exercises and war games can be found to date back to as early as the early 19th century, wherein it was the officers of the Prussian Army who created the contemporary, tactical form of wargames that have since been more widely used and developed by other military conglomerations throughout the world. Non-tactical forms of wargames have existed for much longer, however, in
636-408: A corporal". A counterattack is a military tactic that occurs when one side successfully defends off the enemy’s attack and begins to push the enemy back with an attack of its own. In order to perform a successful counterattack, the defending side must quickly and decisively strike the enemy after defending, with the objective of shocking and overwhelming the enemy. The main concept of the counterattack
742-694: A dead ground opposite the Heights. According to the plan, the French troops would attack and recapture the Pratzen Heights, then from the Heights, they would launch a decisive assault to the center of the Allied army, cripple them, and encircle them from the rear. If the Russian force leaves the Pratzen Heights in order to go to the right side, they will certainly be defeated. The massive thrust through
848-509: A field exercise or fleet exercise, the two sides in the simulated battle are typically called "red" (simulating the enemy forces ) and "blue", to avoid naming a particular adversary. This naming convention originates with the inventors of the table-top war-game (the " Kriegsspiel "), the Prussian Georg von Reisswitz ; their army wore Prussian blue , so friendly forces were depicted by the color blue. Several different armed forces of
954-469: A large gap was left open in the middle of the Allied front line due to troops leaving to attack the French right flank. Noticing the large hole in the middle of the Allied lines, Napoleon attacked the middle and had his forces also flank around both sides, eventually surrounding the Allies. With the Allies completely surrounded, the battle was over. The Battle of Austerlitz was a successful counterattack because
1060-489: A little weary. ... I embrace you." Napoleon's comments in this letter led to the battle's other famous designation, "Battle of the Three Emperors". However, Napoleon was mistaken as Emperor Francis of Austria was not present on the battlefield. Tsar Alexander perhaps best summed up the harsh times for the Allies by stating, "We are babies in the hands of a giant." After hearing the news of Austerlitz, Pitt said of
1166-522: A map of Europe, "Roll up that map; it will not be wanted these ten years." France and Austria signed a truce on 4 December, and the Treaty of Pressburg 22 days later took the latter out of the war. Austria agreed to recognize French territory captured by the treaties of Campo Formio (1797) and Lunéville (1801), cede land to Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden , which were Napoleon's German allies, pay 40 million francs in war indemnities and cede Venice to
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#17327766678191272-409: A model of a real-world scenario. Additionally, mathematical modeling is used in the simulation of war games to provide a quantifiable method of deduction. However, it is rare that a war game is depended upon for quantitative results, and the use of war games is more often found in situations where qualitative factors of the simulated scenario are needed to be determined. The actual use of war games and
1378-456: A moral hazard because of the narrow scope of the alliance, while joint military exercises outside of an alliance (which are extremely rare) usually lead to conflict escalation. Exercises in the 20th and 21st centuries have often been identified by a unique code name , such as Cobra Gold , in the same manner as military contingency operations and combat operations like Operation Phantom Fury . Military exercises are sometimes used as cover for
1484-621: A solid defensive position) could survive at least a day without support. In addition to these forces, Napoleon created a cavalry reserve of 22,000 organized into two cuirassier divisions , four mounted dragoon divisions, one division of dismounted dragoons and one of light cavalry, all supported by 24 artillery pieces. By 1805, the Grande Armée had grown to a force of 350,000 men, who were well equipped, well trained, and led by competent officers. The Russian army in 1805 had many characteristics of Ancien Régime organization. There
1590-510: A stand-alone event for headquarters staff only with heavy emphasis on simulated events. Historical names for the field exercise, or the full-scale rehearsal of military maneuvers as practice for warfare in the military services of the British Commonwealth include "schemes", while those of the military services United States are known as Field Training Exercises (FTX), or, in the case of naval forces, Fleet Exercises (FLEETEX). In
1696-596: A wheeling movement that put the French at the Austrian rear while launching cavalry attacks through the Black Forest , which kept the Austrians at bay. The Ulm Maneuver was well-executed, and on 20 October, 23,000 Austrian troops surrendered at Ulm, bringing the number of Austrian prisoners of the campaign to 60,000. Although this spectacular victory was soured by the defeat of a Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar
1802-454: Is a broad-scale counterattack. The counter-offensive is executed after exhausting the enemy's frontline troops and after the enemy reserves had been committed to combat and proven incapable of breaching defenses, but before the enemy has had the opportunity to assume new defensive positions. Sometimes the counter-offensive can be of a more limited operational maneuver nature, with more limited objectives rather than those seeking attainment of
1908-484: Is going to be a battlefield; you will have a part to play upon it." The Allied council met on 1 December to discuss proposals for the battle. Most Allied strategists had two fundamental ideas: contacting the enemy and securing the southern flank that held the communication line to Vienna. Although the Tsar and his immediate entourage pushed hard for a battle, Emperor Francis of Austria was more cautious, and, as mentioned, he
2014-474: Is to catch the enemy by surprise. Many historical counterattacks were successful because the enemy was off guard and not expecting the counterattack. In the past, there have been many notable counterattacks which have changed the course of a war. To be specific, Operation Bagration and the Battle of Austerlitz are good examples of the proper execution of a counterattack. Operation Bagration during World War II
2120-453: Is with the conduct of all those who had the good fortune to fight in this memorable battle.Soldiers! You are the finest warriors in the World. The recollection of this day,and of your deeds,will be eternal! Thousands of ages hereafter,as long as the events of the universe continue to be relate,will it be told that a Russian army of 76,000 men, hired by the gold of England,was annihilated by you on
2226-469: The Carpathian region was rejected, and the Allied forces soon fell into Napoleon's trap. The battle began with the French army outnumbered. Napoleon had some 72,000 men and 157 guns for the impending battle, with about 7,000 troops under Davout still far to the south in the direction of Vienna. The Allies had about 85,000 soldiers, seventy percent of them Russian, and 318 guns. At first, Napoleon
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#17327766678192332-672: The First Coalition , an alliance of Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, and various Italian states. A Second Coalition , led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and including the Ottoman Empire , Portugal and the Kingdom of Naples , was formed in 1798, but by 1801, this too had been defeated, leaving the British the only opponent of the new French Consulate . In March 1802, France and Britain agreed to end hostilities under
2438-664: The Kingdom of Italy . It was a harsh end for Austria but certainly not a catastrophic peace. The Russian army was allowed to withdraw to home territory, and the French ensconced themselves in Southern Germany. The Holy Roman Empire was extinguished, 1806 being seen as its final year. Napoleon created the Confederation of the Rhine , a string of German states meant to serve as a buffer between France and Prussia. Prussia saw these and other moves as an affront to its status as
2544-637: The Second French Empire in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) is sometimes partly credited to the training of Prussian officers with the wargame Kriegsspiel , which was invented around 1811 and gained popularity with many officers in the Prussian army. These first wargames were played with dice which represented "friction", or the intrusion of less than ideal circumstances during a real war (including morale , meteorology ,
2650-848: The Treaty of Amiens . However, many problems persisted between the two sides, making implementation of the treaty increasingly difficult. The British government resented having to return the Cape Colony and most of the Dutch West Indies to the Batavian Republic. Napoleon was angry that the British refused to abandon the island of Malta . The tense situation only worsened when Napoleon sent an expeditionary force to restore French authority and slavery in Saint-Domingue . In May 1803, Britain declared war on France. In December 1804, an Anglo-Swedish agreement led to
2756-680: The War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. After eliminating an Austrian army during the Ulm campaign , French forces seized Vienna in November 1805. The Austrians avoided further conflict until the arrival of the Russians, who helped increase the allied numbers. Napoleon sent his army north in pursuit of the Allies but then ordered his forces to retreat so he could feign a grave weakness to lure
2862-582: The War of the Third Coalition to an end, with the Peace of Pressburg signed by the French and Austrians later in the month. These achievements did not establish a lasting peace on the continent. Austerlitz had driven neither Russia nor Britain , whose armies protected Sicily from a French invasion, to settle. Prussian resistance to France's growing military power in Central Europe led to
2968-445: The combat readiness of garrisoned or deployable forces prior to deployment from a home base. While both war games and military exercises aim to simulate real conditions and scenarios for the purpose of preparing and analyzing those scenarios, the distinction between a war game and a military exercise is determined, primarily, by the involvement of actual military forces within the simulation, or lack thereof. Military exercises focus on
3074-558: The fog of war , etc.). 21st century militaries still use wargames to simulate future wars and model their reaction. According to Manuel de Landa , after World War II the Command, Control and Communications (C ) was transferred from the military staff to the RAND Corporation , the first think tank . Around the mid to late 20th century, computer simulated war games were created to replace traditional war gaming methods with
3180-541: The 26th Light Regiment and the Tirailleurs , French skirmishers . Initial Allied assaults proved unsuccessful, and General Langeron ordered the bombardment of the village. This deadly barrage forced the French out, and at about the same time, the third column attacked the castle of Sokolnitz. The French, however, counterattacked and regained the village, only to be thrown out again. Conflict in this area ended temporarily when Friant's division (part of III Corps) retook
3286-490: The 2nd of Bernadotte's I Corps, deployed on the flank of the action and allowed French cavalry to seek refuge behind their lines. The horse artillery of the Guard also inflicted heavy casualties on the Russian cavalry and fusiliers. The Russians broke, and many died as they were pursued by the reinvigorated French cavalry for about a quarter of a mile. Kutuzov was severely wounded, and his son-in-law, Ferdinand von Tiesenhausen ,
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3392-678: The Allied centre was conducted by 16,000 troops of Soult's IV Corps. IV Corps' position was cloaked by dense mist during the early stage of the battle; in fact, how long the mist lasted was vital to Napoleon's plan: Soult's troops would become uncovered if the mist dissipated too soon, but if it lingered too long, Napoleon would be unable to determine when the Allied troops had evacuated Pratzen Heights, preventing him from timing his attack properly. Meanwhile, to support his weak right flank, Napoleon ordered Davout's III Corps to force march from Vienna and join General Legrand's men, who held
3498-409: The Allied left flank had to be placed in the right flank, and in the process, they ran into, and slowed down, part of the second column of infantry that was advancing towards the French right. At the time, the planners thought this slowing was disastrous, but later on, it helped the Allies. Meanwhile, the leading elements of the second column were attacking the village of Sokolnitz, which was defended by
3604-409: The Allies into thinking that they were facing a weak army, while it was in fact formidable. Napoleon gave every indication in the days preceding the engagement that the French army was in a pitiful state, even abandoning the dominant Pratzen Heights near Austerlitz. He deployed the French army below the Pratzen Heights and weakened his right flank, enticing the Allies to launch an assault there to roll up
3710-404: The Allies would throw many troops to envelop his right flank to cut the French communication line from Vienna . As a result, the Allies' center and left flank would be exposed and become vulnerable. To encourage them to do so, Napoleon abandoned the strategic position on the Pratzen Heights, faking the weakness of his forces and his caution. Meanwhile, Napoleon's main force was to be concealed in
3816-613: The Bosenitz (Roketnice) stream went south to link up with the Goldbach (Říčka) stream, the latter flowing by the villages of Kobelnitz (Kobylnice) , Sokolnitz (Sokolnice) , and Telnitz (Telnice) . The centrepiece of the entire area was the Pratzen (Prace) Heights, a gently sloping hill about 35 to 40 feet (10 to 12 metres) in height. An aide noted that Napoleon repeatedly told his marshals, "Gentlemen, examine this ground carefully, it
3922-613: The French since December of the previous year, turned his sights from the English Channel to the Rhine to deal with the new Austrian and Russian threats. On 25 September after a feverish march in great secrecy, 200,000 French troops began to cross the Rhine on a front of 260 km (160 mi). Mack had gathered the greater part of the Austrian army at the fortress of Ulm in Swabia . Napoleon swung his forces southward in
4028-514: The French army defended off the Allied attack and quickly defeated the Allies. Napoleon deceived the Allies. He made his men seem weak and near defeat. The Battle of St. Vith was part of the Battle of the Bulge , which began on 16 December 1944, and represented the right flank in the advance of the German center, 5th Panzer-Armee (Armored Army), toward the ultimate objective of Antwerp . Given
4134-477: The French left. The Allies deployed most of their troops into four columns that would attack the French right. The Russian Imperial Guard was held in reserve while Russian troops under Bagration guarded the Allied right. The Russian Tsar stripped Kutuzov of his authority as Commander-in-Chief and gave it to Franz von Weyrother. In the battle, Kutuzov could only command the IV Corps of the Allied army, although he
4240-537: The French line. A forced march from Vienna by Marshal Davout and his III Corps plugged the gap left by Napoleon just in time. The Allied deployment against the French right weakened the Allied centre on the Pratzen Heights, which was attacked by the IV Corps of Marshal Soult . With the Allied center demolished, the French swept through both flanks and routed the Allies, which enabled the French to capture thousands of prisoners. The Allied disaster significantly shook
4346-427: The French number to 75,000 troops. Napoleon's lure did not stop at that. On 25 November, General Savary was sent to the Allied headquarters at Olmütz to deliver Napoleon's message, expressing his desire to avoid a battle while secretly examining the Allied forces' situation. As expected, the overture was seen as a sign of weakness. When Francis I offered an armistice on the 27th, Napoleon accepted enthusiastically. On
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4452-403: The French troops had been shifted in accordance with the Allied movement southward, as Napoleon expected. The battle began at about 8 a.m., with the first allied lines attacking the village of Telnitz, which the 3rd Line Regiment defended. This battlefield sector witnessed heavy fighting in this early action as several ferocious Allied charges evicted the French from the town and forced them onto
4558-495: The German forces could not break through the slowly retreating forces. Clarke's success was one of the first times armor had been used in a mobile defense. Military exercise A military exercise , training exercise , maneuver ( manoeuvre ), or war game is the employment of military resources in training for military operations . Military exercises are conducted to explore the effects of warfare or test tactics and strategies without actual combat . They also ensure
4664-556: The Habsburgs and allowed the fleeing Russian troops free passage through hostile territories and back to their home soil. Critically, victory at Austerlitz permitted the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine , a collection of German states intended as a buffer zone between France and the eastern powers, Austria, Prussia and Russia. The Confederation rendered the Holy Roman Empire virtually useless, so Francis dissolved
4770-690: The Holy Roman Empire in 1806, but remained as emperor of Austria. These achievements failed to establish a lasting peace on the continent. Prussian worries about the growing French influence in Central Europe led to the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. Europe had been in turmoil since the start of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792. In 1797, after five years of war, the French Republic subdued
4876-459: The IV Corps to withdraw from the Heights. This act quickly pushed the Allied army into its grave. At about 8:45 a.m., satisfied at the weakness in the enemy center, Napoleon asked Soult how long it would take for his men to reach the Pratzen Heights, to which the Marshal replied, "Less than twenty minutes, sire." About 15 minutes later, Napoleon ordered the attack, adding, "One sharp blow and
4982-465: The Olmütz road, occupying the enemy's attention. The Allied forces, numbering about 89,000, seemed far superior and would be tempted to attack the outnumbered French army. However, the Allies did not know that Bernadotte , Mortier and Davout were already within supporting distance and could be called in by forced marches -- Bernadotte from Iglau , and Mortier and Davout from Vienna -- which would raise
5088-400: The Russian cavalry for good. The ensuing mêlée was bitter and long, but the French ultimately prevailed. Lannes then led his V Corps against Bagration's men and, after hard fighting, drove the skilled Russian commander off the field. He wanted to pursue, but Murat, who was in control of this sector on the battlefield, was against the idea. Napoleon's focus shifted towards the southern end of
5194-581: The Soviet Union fooled Nazi military leaders into believing that the attack would take place further south, near Ukraine. To aid the deception, the Red Army established fake army camps in Ukraine and after German reconnaissance planes reported Soviet troop concentrations in the area, panzer and infantry divisions were rushed south from Belorussia, leaving it vulnerable to a major assault. To support
5300-505: The U.S. and " IVAN " representing the Soviet Union. Early game theory included only zero-sum games , which means that when one player won, the other automatically lost. The prisoner's dilemma , which models the situation of two prisoners in which each one is given the choice to betray or not the other, gave three alternatives to the game: This model gave the basis for the massive retaliation nuclear doctrine. The zero-sum fallacy and cooperative games would be theorized only later, while
5406-468: The actions taken (Defense Ethics Program, Department of National Defense, 2012). These simulations involve crude living conditions, sleep deprivations, time limit, and either lack or ambiguous amount of information. A subset of simulated exercises is the Table Top Exercise (TTX), typically limited to senior personnel stepping through the decision-making processes they would employ in a crisis,
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#17327766678195512-528: The allied army had already retreated to Olmütz . According to Kutuzov's plan, the Allies would retreat further to the Carpathian region and "at Galicia , I will bury the French." Napoleon did not stay still. The French Emperor decided to set a psychological trap to lure the Allies out. Days before any fighting, Napoleon had been giving the impression that his army was weak and desired a negotiated peace. About 53,000 French troops—including Soult, Lannes, and Murat's forces—were assigned to take Austerlitz and
5618-471: The ambiguity of a role one may encounter and challenge of ethics. This will also lead the military personnel to have to make a difficult call in challenging circumstances. Even in difficult situations and conditions, military personnel still has to follow rules and regulations such as: 1) when the right thing to do is not immediately clear; 2) when two or more important principles or values support different actions, and 3) when some harm will result, regardless of
5724-496: The attack, partisan groups in German-controlled territory were instructed to destroy German railroads to hamper German efforts to transport supplies and troops throughout the occupied territories and further weaken German Army Group Centre in Ukraine. On 22 June 1944, the attack on Belarus by 1.7 million Soviet troops began and overwhelmed the depleted Germans defenders. On 3 July, the Red Army captured Minsk, and later
5830-520: The battle, losing around 9,000 out of an army of 66,000, or about 13% of their forces. The Allies also lost some 180 guns and about 50 standards. The victory was met by sheer amazement and delirium in Paris, where the nation had been teetering on the brink of financial collapse just days earlier. Napoleon wrote to Josephine , "I have beaten the Austro-Russian army commanded by the two emperors. I am
5936-405: The battlefield, where the French and the Allies were still fighting over Sokolnitz and Telnitz. In an effective double-pronged assault, St. Hilaire's division and part of Davout's III Corps smashed through the enemy at Sokolnitz, which persuaded the commanders of the first two columns, Generals Kienmayer and Langeron , to flee as fast as they could. Buxhowden , the commander of the Allied left and
6042-530: The build up to an actual invasion, as in the cases of the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , or it can provoke opponents at peace to perceive it as such, as in the case of Able Archer 83 . A Command Post Exercise (CPX) typically focuses on the battle readiness of staffs such as a particular Unified Combatant Command or one of its components at any level. It may run in parallel with an FTX or its equivalent, or as
6148-420: The catastrophe may have been exaggerated; on his instructions, the lakes were drained a few days after the battle and the corpses of only two or three men, with some 150 horses, were found. On the other hand, Tsar Alexander I attested to the incident after the wars. Allied casualties stood at about 36,000 out of an army of 89,000, representing about 38% of their effective forces. The French were not unscathed in
6254-491: The city of Brno , between that city and Austerlitz ( Czech : Slavkov u Brna ) in what is now the Czech Republic. The northern part of the battlefield was dominated by the 700-foot (210-metre) Santon Hill and the 880-foot (270-meter) Žuráň Hill, both overlooking the vital Olomouc /Brno road, which was on an east–west axis. To the west of these two hills was the village of Bellowitz (Bedřichovice) , and between them,
6360-418: The combined Russo-Austrian force. On 9 September 1805, Kutuzov arrived at the battlefield, quickly contacting Francis I of Austria and his courtiers to discuss strategy and logistics. Under pressure from Kutuzov, the Austrians agreed to supply munitions and weapons promptly. Kutuzov also spotted shortcomings in the Austrian defense plan, which he called "very dogmatic". He objected to the Austrian annexation of
6466-413: The correct position in the field. The fighting initially went well for the French, but Kellerman's forces took cover behind General Caffarelli's infantry division once it became clear that Russian numbers were too great. Caffarelli's men halted the Russian assaults and permitted Murat to send two cuirassier divisions (one commanded by d'Hautpoul and the other one by Nansouty ) into the fray to finish off
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#17327766678196572-513: The creation of the Third Coalition. British Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger spent 1804 and 1805 in a flurry of diplomatic activity geared towards forming a new coalition against France, and by April 1805, Britain and Russia had signed an alliance. Having been defeated twice in recent memory by France and being keen on revenge, Austria joined the Coalition a few months later. Before
6678-453: The defensive phase, such as the Battle of Moscow . A saying, attributed to Napoleon Bonaparte illustrate the tactical importance of the counterattack : "the greatest danger occurs at the moment of victory". In the same spirit, in his Battle Studies , Ardant du Pic noticed that "he, general or mere captain, who employs every one in the storming of a position can be sure of seeing it retaken by an organised counter-attack of four men and
6784-475: The evolution of nuclear technology and missiles made the massive retaliation nuclear strategy obsolete. Battle of Austerlitz [REDACTED] French Empire The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805/11 Frimaire An XIV FRC ), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors , was one of the most important military engagements of the Napoleonic Wars . The battle occurred near
6890-487: The extreme southern flank that would bear the heaviest part of the Allied attack. Davout's soldiers had 48 hours to march 110 km (68 mi). Their arrival was crucial in determining the success of the French plan. Indeed, the arrangement of Napoleon on the right flank was precarious as the French had only minimal troops garrisoning there. However, Napoleon was able to use such a risky plan because Davout—the commander of III Corps—was one of Napoleon's best marshals, because
6996-433: The field, forcing a bloody effort and the only loss of a French standard in the battle (a battalion of the 4th Line Regiment was defeated). Sensing trouble, Napoleon ordered his own heavy Guard cavalry forward. These men pulverized their Russian counterparts, but with both sides pouring in large masses of cavalry, no victory was clear. The Russians had a numerical advantage; however, the tide soon swung as Drouet's Division,
7102-409: The fighting in several cases. Napoleon had his men retreat in an attempt to lure the Allies to battle. He purposely left his right flank open and vulnerable. This deceived the Allies into attacking and the Allies fell into Napoleon 's trap. When the Allied troops went to attack Napoleon’s right flank, Napoleon quickly filled up the right flank so the attack was not effective. However, on the Allied side,
7208-485: The following day, French success on land continued as Vienna fell in November. The French gained 100,000 muskets, 500 cannons, and intact bridges across the Danube . Russian delays prevented them from saving the Austrian armies; the Russians withdrew to the northeast to await reinforcements and link up with surviving Austrian units. Tsar Alexander I appointed general Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov commander-in-chief of
7314-683: The formation of the Third Coalition, Napoleon had assembled an invasion force called the Armée d'Angleterre (Army of England) around six camps at Boulogne in Northern France. He intended to use this force, amounting to 150,000 men, to strike at England and was so confident of success that he had commemorative medals struck to celebrate the conquest of the English. Although they never invaded, Napoleon's troops received careful and invaluable training for any possible military operation. Boredom among
7420-489: The forms of tabletop games such as chess and Go . The modern use of military exercises grew out of the military need to study warfare and to reenact old battles for learning purposes. During the age of Kabinettskriege (Cabinet wars), Frederick the Great , King of Prussia from 1740 to 1786, "put together his armies as a well-oiled clockwork mechanism whose components were robot -like warriors. No individual initiative
7526-539: The frozen Satschan ponds. French artillery pounded towards the men, and the ice was broken by the bombardment. The fleeing men drowned in the cold ponds, dozens of Russian artillery pieces going down with them. Estimates of how many guns were captured differ: there may have been as few as 38 or more than 100. Sources also differ about casualties, with figures ranging between 200 and 2,000 dead. Many drowning Russians were saved by their victorious foes. However, local evidence later made public suggests that Napoleon's account of
7632-586: The goal of optimizing and speeding up the process and making it possible to analyze more complex scenarios with greater ease. In 1958, the Naval War college installed a computer war game system where their traditional war gaming activities were held. The system was called the Navy Electronic Warfare System, and cost over $ 10 million to install. The change from traditional war gaming methods to electronic computer simulated ones meant that
7738-441: The land recently under Napoleon's control because this would make the local people distrust the allied force. The French followed after Kutuzov but soon found themselves in a difficult position. Prussian intentions were unknown and could be hostile; the Russian and Austrian armies had converged, and French lines of communication were extremely long, requiring strong garrisons to keep them open. Napoleon realized that to capitalize on
7844-474: The main power of Central Europe, and it went to war with France in 1806. Napoleon's words to his troops after the battle were full of praise: Soldats! Je suis content de vous (English: Soldiers! I am pleased with you ). Napoleon wrote to his victorious army on the night of Austerlitz with his customary rhetoric : " Even at this hour,before this great day shall pass and be lost in the ocean of eternity,your emperor just address you,and say how satisfied he
7950-458: The man responsible for leading the attack, was completely drunk and fled as well. Kienmayer covered his withdrawal with the O'Reilly light cavalry, who managed to defeat five of six French cavalry regiments before they had to retreat. General panic seized the Allied army, and it abandoned the field in all possible directions. A famous, albeit disputed , episode occurred during this retreat: defeated Russian forces withdrew south towards Vienna via
8056-567: The military-political council responsible for the armed forces. Charles was Austria's most able field commander, but he was unpopular at court and lost much influence when, against his advice, Austria decided to go to war with France. Karl Mack became the new main commander in Austria's army, instituting reforms on the eve of the war that called for a regiment to be composed of four battalions of four companies , rather than three battalions of six companies. In August 1805, Napoleon, Emperor of
8162-400: The nature of the relationship between the countries and the number of them involved. These exercises allow for better coordination between militaries and observation of enemy tactics, and serve as a visible show of strength and cooperation for the participating countries. According to a 2021 study, joint military exercises within well-defined alliances usually deter adversaries without producing
8268-504: The other side of the Goldbach. The first men of Davout's corps arrived at this time and threw the Allies out of Telnitz before they, too, were attacked by hussars and re-abandoned the town. Additional Allied attacks out of Telnitz were checked by French artillery. Allied columns started pouring against the French right, but not at the desired speed, so the French successfully curbed the attacks. The Allied deployments were mistaken and poorly timed: cavalry detachments under Liechtenstein on
8374-421: The plains of Olmütz. " The Emperor provided two million golden francs to the higher officers and 200 francs to each soldier, with large pensions for the widows of the fallen,also providing 6,000 Francs for the widows of fallen generals. Orphaned children were adopted by Napoleon personally and were allowed to add "Napoleon" to their baptismal and family names. He could afford this,and much else besides,thanks to
8480-537: The rest of Belorussia. Operation Bagration was a huge Soviet success and opened a direct route to Berlin after the fall of Belorussia, leading to the Red Army beginning to take over the territory that had been taken by the Wehrmacht three years before. Another military battle that utilized the counterattack tactic was the Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. While fighting the Austrian and Russian armies, Napoleon purposely made it seem as if his men were weak from
8586-481: The results that they can provide are limited by possibilities. War games cannot be used to achieve predictive results, as the nature of war and the scenarios that war games aim to simulate are not deterministic. Therefore, war games are primarily used to consider multiple possible outcomes of any given decision, or number of decisions, made in the simulated scenario. These possible outcomes are analyzed and compared, and cause-and-effect relationships are typically sought for
8692-400: The right flank's position was protected by a complicated system of streams and lakes, and because the French had already settled upon a secondary line of retreat through Brunn . The Imperial Guard and Bernadotte's I Corps were held in reserve while the V Corps under Lannes guarded the northern sector of the battlefield, where the new communication line was located. By 1 December 1805,
8798-469: The same day, Napoleon ordered Soult to abandon both Austerlitz and the Pratzen Heights and, while doing so, to create an impression of chaos during the retreat that would induce the enemy to occupy the Heights. The next day (28 November), the French Emperor requested a personal interview with Alexander I. He received a visit from the Tsar's most impetuous aide, Prince Peter Dolgorukov . The meeting
8904-530: The same nation training together are described as having a joint exercise. Those involving forces of multiple nations are described as having a combined exercise or coalition exercise. These are called a bilateral exercise if based on security agreements between two nations, or a multilateral exercise if the agreement is between multiple nations. Other types of exercise include the Tactical Exercise Without Troops (TEWT), also known as
9010-636: The second column, primarily inexperienced Austrians, also participated in the struggle and swung the numbers against one of the best fighting forces in the French army, eventually forcing them to withdraw down the slopes. However, gripped by desperation, St. Hilaire's men struck hard again and bayoneted the Allies out of the heights. To the north, General Vandamme's division attacked an area called Staré Vinohrady ("Old Vineyards") and, through talented skirmishing and deadly volleys, broke several Allied battalions. The battle had firmly turned in France's favor, but it
9116-532: The simulation of real, full-scale military operations in controlled hostile conditions in attempts to reproduce war time decisions and activities for training purposes or to analyze the outcome of possible war time decisions. War games, however, can be much smaller than full-scale military operations, do not typically include the use of functional military equipment, and decisions and actions are carried out by artificial players to simulate possible decisions and actions within an artificial scenario which usually represents
9222-504: The success at Ulm, he had to force the Allies to battle and then defeat them. On the Russian side, Kutuzov also realized Napoleon needed to do battle, so instead of clinging to the "suicidal" Austrian defense plan, Kutuzov decided to retreat. He ordered Pyotr Bagration to contain the French at Vienna with 600 soldiers. He instructed Bagration to accept Murat's ceasefire proposal so the Allied Army could have more time to retreat. It
9328-512: The task of countering the German advance, US General Bruce C. Clarke decided that a mobile defense was the best solution. Knowing that the German army was aiming for an objective far behind the battle line, he decided that they could afford to lose a few kilometers a day - the idea being that a slowing down of the advance was as good as stopping them outright, since the Germans were limited by time. The mobile defense he used at St. Vith involved
9434-563: The town of Austerlitz in the Austrian Empire (now Slavkov u Brna in the Czech Republic ). Around 158,000 troops were involved, of which around 24,000 were killed or wounded. The battle is often cited by military historians as one of Napoleon's tactical masterpieces, in the same league as other historic engagements like Cannae or Gaugamela . The military victory of Napoleon 's Grande Armée at Austerlitz brought
9540-440: The troops occasionally set in, but Napoleon paid many visits and conducted lavish parades to boost morale. The men at Boulogne formed the core for what Napoleon would later call La Grande Armée . The army was organized into seven corps , which were large field units that contained 36 to 40 cannons each and were capable of independent action until other corps could come to their aid. A single corps (adequately situated in
9646-585: The unknown factors within the simulation. It is typically the relationships between visual aspects of the simulation that aid in the assessment of the problems that are simulated within war games, like geographic locations and positionings that would be difficult to discern or analyze at full-scale and for complex environments. Military exercises involving multiple branches of the same military are known as joint exercises , while military exercises involving two or more countries are known as combined , coalition , bilateral , or multilateral exercises , depending on
9752-431: The use of M36 tank destroyers acting as a base of fire to resist the oncoming German armored thrust, slowing them down enough to then counter-attack them with a force of M4 Sherman tanks. Artillery and Infantry were involved in this process as a combined arms force. The key was not to engage the Germans in a pitched battle, but to slow their advance enough to ruin their offensive timetable. The counter-attacks ensured that
9858-533: The value and accuracy of a war game simulation was less dependent on skill and individual experiences, and more dependent on quantitative data and complicated analysis methods. Von Neumann was employed by the RAND Corporation, and his game theory was used in wargames to model nuclear dissuasion during the Cold War . Thus, the U.S. nuclear strategy was defined using wargames, " SAM " representing
9964-407: The village. Sokolnitz was perhaps the most contested area on the battlefield and would change hands several times as the day progressed. While the Allied troops attacked the French right flank, Kutuzov's IV Corps stopped at the Pratzen Heights and stayed still. Just like Napoleon, Kutuzov realized the importance of Pratzen and decided to protect the position. But the young Tsar did not, so he ordered
10070-509: The war is over." A dense fog helped to cloud the advance of St. Hilaire's French division, but as they ascended the slope, the legendary 'Sun of Austerlitz' ripped the mist apart and encouraged them forward. Russian soldiers and commanders on top of the heights were stunned to see so many French troops coming towards them. Allied commanders moved some of the delayed detachments of the fourth column into this bitter struggle. Over an hour of fighting destroyed much of this unit. The other men from
10176-681: The will of Emperor Francis to further resist Napoleon. France and Austria agreed to an armistice immediately, and the Treaty of Pressburg followed shortly after, on 26 December. Pressburg took Austria out of both the war and the Coalition while reinforcing the earlier treaties of Campo Formio and of Lunéville between the two powers. The treaty confirmed the Austrian loss of lands in Italy and Bavaria to France, and in Germany to Napoleon's German allies. It also imposed an indemnity of 40 million francs on
10282-403: Was allowed to Frederick's soldiers; their only role was to cooperate in the creation of walls of projectiles through synchronized firepower." This was in the pursuit of a more effective army, and such practices made it easier to look at war from a top-down perspective. Disciplined troops should respond predictably, allowing study to be confined to maneuvers and command . Prussia 's victory over
10388-493: Was another part of the trap, as Napoleon intentionally expressed anxiety and hesitation to his opponents. Dolgorukov reported an additional indication of French weakness to the Tsar. The plan was successful. Many Allied officers, including the Tsar's aides and the Austrian Chief of Staff Franz von Weyrother , strongly supported an immediate attack and appeared to sway Tsar Alexander. Kutuzov's plan to retreat further to
10494-535: Was far from over. Napoleon ordered Bernadotte's I Corps to support Vandamme's left and moved his command center from Žuráň Hill to St. Anthony's Chapel on the Pratzen Heights. The problematic position of the Allies was confirmed by the decision to send in the Russian Imperial Guard ; Grand Duke Constantine , Tsar Alexander's brother, commanded the Guard and counterattacked in Vandamme's section of
10600-431: Was killed. I was ... under fierce and continuous canister fire ... Many soldiers, now incessantly engaged in battle from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m., had no cartridges left. I could do nothing but retreat ... Meanwhile, the northernmost part of the battlefield also witnessed heavy fighting. The Prince of Liechtenstein's heavy cavalry began to assault Kellermann's lighter cavalry forces after eventually arriving at
10706-479: Was later discovered that the proposal was false and had been used to launch a surprise attack on Vienna. Nonetheless, Bagration held off the French assault for a time by negotiating an armistice with Murat, thereby providing Kutuzov time to position himself with the Russian rearguard near Hollabrunn . Murat initially refrained from an attack, believing the entire Russian army stood before him. Napoleon soon realized Murat's mistakes and ordered him to pursue quickly, but
10812-583: Was no permanent formation above the regimental level, and senior officers mostly belonged to aristocratic circles. The Russian infantry was considered one of the hardiest in Europe, with fine artillery crewed by experienced professional soldiers. Archduke Charles , brother of the Austrian Emperor, had started to reform the Austrian army in 1801 by taking away power from the Hofkriegsrat ,
10918-416: Was not confident of victory. In a letter written to Minister of Foreign Affairs Talleyrand , Napoleon requested Talleyrand not tell anyone about the upcoming battle because he did not want to disturb Empress Joséphine . According to Frederick C. Schneid, the French Emperor's chief worry was how he could explain to Joséphine a French defeat. The battle took place about six miles (ten kilometres) southeast of
11024-547: Was one of the largest counterattacks in military history. In the summer of 1944 the assault by around 1.7 million Red Army soldiers successfully put the Red Army on the offensive in the Eastern Front after Nazi Germany in Operation Barbarossa had captured the territory against the Soviet Union in the summer of 1941. The Soviet counterattack focused on Belorussia, but prior to the counterattack starting,
11130-560: Was seconded by Kutuzov, the Commander-in-chief of the Russians and the Allied troops. The pressure to fight from the Russian nobles and the Austrian commanders, however, was too strong, and the Allies adopted the plan of the Austrian Chief-of-Staff, Franz von Weyrother . This called for a main drive against the French right flank, which the Allies noticed was lightly guarded, and diversionary attacks against
11236-437: Was still the nominal commander because the Tsar was afraid to take over if his favoured plan failed. Napoleon hoped that the Allied forces would attack, and to encourage them, he deliberately weakened his right flank. On 28 November, Napoleon met with his marshals at Imperial Headquarters, who informed him of their qualms about the forthcoming battle. He shrugged off their suggestion of retreat. Napoleon's plan envisaged that
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