Timeline
210-763: The Austrian Empire , officially known as the Empire of Austria , was a multinational European great power from 1804 to 1867, created by proclamation out of the realms of the Habsburgs . During its existence, it was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the Russian Empire and the United Kingdom , while geographically, it was the third-largest empire in Europe after the Russian Empire and
420-445: A commission de méditation under his presidency to resolve their disputes. Despite all of this, they were to remain members of the empire. Württemberg ultimately refused to sign. In June 1806, Napoleon began pressuring Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg for the creation of confédération de la haute Allemagne (Upper German confederation) outside the empire. On 12 July 1806, these three states and thirteen other minor German princes formed
630-1017: A language isolate ( Nihali ). Each state and union territory of India has one or more official languages, and the Constitution of India recognizes in particular 22 " scheduled languages ". It also recognizes 212 scheduled tribal groups, which together constitute about 7.5% of the country's population. Most of its states are based on a linguistic ethnicity, including Uttar Pradesh , Madhya Pradesh , and Chhattisgarh ( Hindustanis ), Gujarat ( Gujaratis ), West Bengal ( Bengalis ), Maharashtra ( Marathis ), Odisha ( Odias ), Goa ( Konkanis ), Haryana ( Haryanvis ), Rajasthan ( Rajasthanis ), Punjab ( Punjabis ), Tamil Nadu ( Tamils ), Andhra Pradesh and Telangana ( Telugus ), Karnataka ( Kannada ), Kerala ( Malayalis ), Assam ( Assamese ), Nagaland ( Nagas ), Manipur ( Manipuris ), Mizoram ( Mizos ), Meghalaya ( Khasi ), Tripura ( Tripuri ), and Sikkim ( Sikkimese ). Jammu and Kashmir
840-522: A plurinational state , which recognizes the national distinctiveness of various indigenous peoples . Whether Canada should be described as "multinational" is an ongoing topic in academia and popular discourse. The current policy of the federal government is that Canada is bilingual —English and French are both official languages —and multicultural . In 2006, the House of Commons of Canada voted in favour of Government Business No. 11 , which states that
1050-597: A French satellite state , effectively meant the end of the Holy Roman Empire. The abdication in August 1806, combined with a dissolution of the entire Imperial hierarchy and its institutions, was seen as necessary to prevent the possibility of Napoleon proclaiming himself Holy Roman Emperor, something which would have reduced Francis II to Napoleon's vassal. Reactions to the empire's dissolution ranged from indifference to despair. The populace of Vienna , capital of
1260-471: A House of Deputies ( Abgeordnetenhaus ). But most nationalities of the monarchy remained dissatisfied. After the second war with Denmark in 1864, Holstein came under Austrian administration, and Schleswig and Lauenburg under Prussian administration. But the internal difficulties continued. Diets replaced the parliament in 17 provinces, the Hungarians pressed for autonomy, and Venetia was attracted by
1470-549: A decisive part in the overthrow of Napoleon in the campaigns of 1813–14. It participated in a second invasion of France in 1815, and put an end to Murat's regime in south Italy. The latter period of Napoleonic Wars featured Metternich exerting a large degree of influence over foreign policy in the Austrian Empire, a matter nominally decided by the Emperor. Metternich initially supported an alliance with France, arranging
1680-545: A different nationality—for example, some members of the Ndebele and Tswana nations speak Zulu, and groups such as the Thembu and Hlubi speak Xhosa. As is the case throughout Africa, the nations of South Africa mostly correspond to specific regions. However, large cities such as Johannesburg are home to a mixture of national groups, leading to a " melting pot " of cultures. The government has continuously attempted to unify
1890-471: A distinct state in 1757, 1797 and 1801 and in the same settlements accepted that the Holy Roman Empire outranked both Austria and France. Thus, it was decided that Austria would be raised to the rank of an empire in order to maintain the parity between Austria and France while still preserving the Roman imperial title as pre-eminent, outranking both. Francis II proclaimed himself as Emperor of Austria (without
2100-428: A few rulers. The traditional political hierarchy of the empire was disrupted, but it was not obvious to contemporaries that this was to lead to the empire's downfall, the general view was that it represented a new beginning rather than the last few steps towards an ending. Furthermore, many publicists within the empire did not see its nature as an "irregular" monarchy as something negative and were unconcerned with forming
2310-527: A great power in Europe (rather than continue being a vassal to the Habsburgs). Even then, the restoration of the Holy Roman Empire, with a modernized internal political structure, had not been out of reach at the 1814–1815 Congress of Vienna (which decided Europe's borders in the aftermath of Napoleon's defeat). However, Emperor Francis had come to the conclusion before the congress that the Holy Roman Empire's political structure would not have been superior to
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#17327583388082520-674: A minority . According to the United Nations , Russia's immigrant population is the third-largest in the world, numbering over 11.6 million; most of which are from post-Soviet states , mainly Ukrainians . The republics are Tatarstan ( Volga Tatars ), Bashkortostan ( Bashkirs , Volga Tatars ), Chuvashia ( Chuvash ), Adygea ( Adyghe ), Karachay-Cherkessia ( Cherkess of Karachay-Cherkessia , Karachays , Nogais , Abaza ), Kabardino-Balkaria ( Kabardins & Balkars ), Chechnya ( Chechens ), Mordovia ( Mordvin ), Udmurtia ( Udmurts ), Mari El ( Mari ), Kalmykia ( Kalmyks ),
2730-488: A new age, rather than a destroyer of an old order. The popular idea forwarded by German nationalists was that the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire freed Germany from the somewhat anachronistic ideas rooted in a fading ideal of universal Christianity and paved the way for the country's unification as the German Empire , a nation state, 65 years later. German historian Helmut Rössler has argued that Francis II and
2940-408: A new political or social order, but rather sought to augment the already present structures to create a better future. The Peace of Westphalia had explicitly designated that the empire was to remain non-aligned and passive and that it was to work to maintain peace in Europe, an arrangement approved of by most of its inhabitants. Over the course of the 18th century, the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire,
3150-599: A personal letter of congratulations to Francis. George III of the United Kingdom recognized the new title in October and although Emperor Alexander I of Russia objected to Francis "lowering himself to the level of the usurper Napoleon", he recognized the title in November. The only significant objections to Francis II's title were raised by Sweden , which through holding Swedish Pomerania , an Imperial estate , had
3360-538: A place in the Reichstag. The Swedes saw the title as a "clear breach" of the Imperial constitution and, invoking their prerogative as a guarantor of the imperial constitution , demanded a formal debate in the Reichstag, a threat that was neutralized by the other parties of the Reichstag agreeing to an extended summer recess until November. To defend the title, Imperial representatives argued that it did not infringe on
3570-545: A place where weaker Imperial princes could work to convince their more powerful counterparts to remain at peace and resolve their differences. Although the forces of the French First Republic overran and occupied the Austrian Netherlands in 1792, the Holy Roman Empire defended itself quite well until Prussia abandoned the war effort to focus its attention on its Polish territories (overseeing
3780-626: A return to monarchy in France was welcomed (though unfortunate in so far that the monarch was Napoleon), the imperial title (instead of a royal one) was not. In the empire, Napoleon's title raised fears that it might inspire the Russian Emperor to insist that he was equal to the Holy Roman Emperor and might encourage other monarchs, such as George III of the United Kingdom , to also proclaim themselves emperors. Relations between
3990-515: A spate of annexations by those states allied to Napoleon in November–December 1805. In response, the knights' corporation ( corpus equestre ) dissolved itself on 20 January 1806. With the dissolution of the Empire, the knights lost their Imperial immediacy , ceasing to be either free or Imperial and were at the mercy of the newly sovereign states. Contemporaries saw the defeat at Austerlitz as
4200-530: A stable economy and reached an almost balanced budget, despite having a major deficit following the Napoleonic Wars. From March 1848 through November 1849, the Empire was threatened by revolutionary movements, most of which were of a nationalist character. Besides that, liberal and even socialist currents resisted the empire's longstanding conservatism. Although most of the revolution plans failed, some changes were made; significant lasting reforms included
4410-462: A standing army, a central treasury, weak central control exercised by a monarch who was elective and not hereditary all contributed to the idea that there was no unified German state. In the view of its contemporaries, the empire had regressed from a "regular" monarchy into a highly irregular one. The empire was mostly preserved through a self-balancing system involving not just the Imperial vassals themselves, but also states throughout Europe. Already in
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#17327583388084620-552: A system which delegated the responsibilities of the Kreise among subordinate Amtsbezirke [ de ] ('office districts'), a system which persisted until 1867. In the course of the post-1848 reforms Transylvania was also divided into Kreise in 1851 (re-divided in 1854); the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar was also divided into Kreise . German was the primary language of higher education in
4830-569: A time when Europe was beginning to be dominated by powerful imperial nation states. Because of the weak central government, the constituent territories of the empire could influence their own fates, the central Reichstag decided policy and legislation and allowed the empire to coordinate its response to the threat represented by France and the two separate imperial supreme courts and the Imperial circles represented successful venues for resolving intra-imperial conflicts. The Reichstag also worked as
5040-482: A turning point of world-historical significance. The Peace of Pressburg, too, was perceived as radical shift. It did not affirm previous treaties in the usual way and its wording seemed to raise Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg into equals of the empire while downgrading the latter to a merely German confederation. Nevertheless, Bavaria and Württemberg reaffirmed to the Reichstag that they were subject to Imperial law. Some commentators argued that plénitude de la souveraineté
5250-565: A very bad reputation among Czechs and subsequently led to the strengthening of the Czech national movement . However, Bach's relaxed ideological views (apart from the neo-absolutism) led to a great rise in the 1850s of economic freedom . Internal customs duties were abolished, and peasants were emancipated from their feudal obligations. In her capacity as leader of the German Confederation, Austria participated with volunteers in
5460-496: A whole. Further, Metternich opposed the weakening of France in the years after Napoleon, and viewed the new monarchy in Paris as an effective tool in keeping Russia at bay. From 1815 to 1848, Metternich steered Austria Imperial foreign policy, and indeed the mood of Europe, and managed to keep peace on the continent despite the growing liberal and radical movements inside most major powers. His resignation in 1848, forced by moderates in
5670-643: A worthy heritage, they were now also considered things of the past. With the Holy Roman Empire dissolved, Francis II could focus his attention on the continued rise and prosperity of his new hereditary empire, as Emperor Francis I of Austria. On the morning of 6 August 1806, the Imperial herald of the Holy Roman Empire rode from the Hofburg to the Church of the Nine Choirs of Angels (both being located in Vienna ,
5880-1022: Is Jewish autonomous oblast ( Jews , but there are a few of them, because of migration to Israel after dissolution of the Soviet Union ), 6 administrative-territorial units with a special status , which are Agin-Buryat Okrug ( Buryats ) in Zabaykalsky Krai , Ust-Orda Buryat Okrug ( Buryats ) in Irkutsk Oblast , Koryak Okrug ( Koryaks ) in Kamchatka Krai , Taymyrsky Dolgano-Nenetsky District ( Dolgans , Nenets , Enets , Nganasans ) and Evenkiysky District ( Evenki ) in Krasnoyarsky Krai , Komi-Permyak Okrug ( Komi ) in Perm Krai . The Tatars, Bashkirs, and Chechens are three predominantly Muslim minorities in
6090-516: Is Russian . However, Russia's 193 minority ethnic groups speak over 100 languages. According to the 2002 Census, 142.6 million people speak Russian, followed by Tatar with 5.3 million, and Ukrainian with 1.8 million speakers. The constitution gives the individual republics of the country the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian. Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire The dissolution of
6300-563: Is no ethnic majority in Ghana . The plurality group, the Akan people , are a meta-ethnicity (that is, a collection of similar but distinct ethnicities). While Akan is the most-widely spoken language in Ghana, English is the official language of government. Kenya is home to more than 70 ethnic groups; the most populous of which are the Kikuyu , at about 20 percent of the population. Together,
6510-1140: Is a multinational state consisting of 56 ethnic groups with the Han people the largest ethnic group in mainland China. As of 2010, 91.51% of the population were classified as Han (~1.2 billion). Besides the Han Chinese majority, 55 other ethnic (minority) groups are categorized in present China, numbering approximately 105 million people (8%), mostly concentrated in the bordering northwest, north, northeast, south and southwest but with some in central interior areas. The major minority ethnic groups in China are Zhuang (16.9 million), Hui (10.5 million), Manchu (10.3 million), Uyghur (10 million), Miao (9.4 million), Yi (8.7 million), Tujia (8.3 million), Tibetan (6.2 million), Mongolian (5.9 million), Dong (2.8 million), Buyei (2.8 million), Yao (2.7 million), Bai (1.9 million), Korean (1.8 million), Hani (1.6 million), Li (1.4 million), Kazakh (1.4 million) and Dai (1.2 million). At least 126,000 people from Canada ,
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6720-565: Is a multinational state, and is home to over 193 ethnic groups. In the 2010 Census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians , and 19% of the population were minorities; while around 84.93% of the Russia's population was of European descent , of which the vast majority were Slavs as well as minorities of Germanic , Baltic-Finns and other peoples. There are 22 republics in Russia, designated to have their own ethnicities, cultures, and languages. In 13 of them, ethnic Russians consist
6930-547: Is also referred to as the " Age of Metternich ". During this period, Metternich controlled the Habsburg monarchy 's foreign policy. He also had a major influence in European politics. He was known for his strong conservative views and approach in politics. Metternich's policies were strongly against revolution and liberalism. In his opinion, liberalism was a form of legalized revolution. Metternich believed that absolute monarchy
7140-525: Is only in Nigeria that they are classified as a single ethnic group for political expediency. Nigeria is also made up of many other ethnic groups like the Yoruba , Igbo and Ibibio . Prior to colonialism, they were not self identified as one ethnic nationality but are so today along with the three Hausa-Fulani, Yoruba, and Igbo which classification does carry between each group of who is part of and not part of
7350-710: Is possible that he entertained the idea, especially after he had formed the Confederation of the Rhine and beaten back Austria in early 1806. Perhaps Napoleon did not think that the title could be combined with "Emperor of the French" (even though Francis II was emperor of both the Holy Roman Empire and Austria) and because of this he might have abandoned any potential Roman aspirations since he did not wish to relinquish his other imperial title. The ephemeral Roman aspirations can also be gathered from Napoleon's correspondence with
7560-477: Is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for
7770-545: Is similar to Urdu, and many of whom were educated in Urdu under British rule). Bengalis feared they would be marginalized despite their demographic strength as, at the time, the largest ethnic group of Pakistan. These grievances culminated in the secession of East Bengal (which had been part of the administrative unit of East Pakistan ) and the creation of Bangladesh. Today, nationalist movements within Pakistan include those of
7980-543: Is the only union territory in the country based on this which is home to the Kashmiris , Dogras , Ladakhis , Gujjars , Bakarwals , Paharis , Dards , Hanjis , and several other people groups. Furthermore, several other Indian states are themselves ethnically, linguistically, and religiously diverse. The tribes of Uttar Pradesh are Agarias , Baigas , Bhars , Cheros , Gonds , Kolis , Korwas , Tharus , Bhoksas , Bhotiyas , Jaunsaris , and Rajis ; Madhya Pradesh
8190-661: Is the primary official and national language, followed by English . In Sabah and Sarawak, English is the official language, although many locals speak a dialect of Malay. Myanmar (also known as Burma) is an ethnically diverse nation with 135 distinct ethnic groups officially recognized by the Burmese Government . These are grouped into eight "major national ethnic races": Bamar , Chin , Kachin , Karen , Kayah , Mon , Rakhine , Shan The "major national ethnic races" are grouped primarily according to region rather than linguistic or ethnic affiliation, as for example
8400-560: Is usually multicultural or multilingual , and is geographically composed of more than one country, such as the countries of the United Kingdom . Historical multinational states that have since split into multiple states include the Ottoman Empire , British India , Qing Empire , Czechoslovakia , the Soviet Union , Yugoslavia and Austria-Hungary (a dual monarchy of two multinational states). Some analysts have described
8610-544: Is where tribes such as the Gonds, Bhils , Baiga, Korku , Bhadia , Halba , Kaul , Mariya , Malto and Sahariya ; Chhattisgarh 's tribal population consists mainly of the Gonds, Kanwars , Brinjhwasr , Bhaina , Bhatra , Uraon , Oraons , Kamar , Halba, Baiga, Sanwras , Korwas , Bhariatis , Nageshias , Manghwars , Kharias , and Dhanwars ; Bihar has the Bhojpuris , Maithils , and Magadhis , and Jharkhand has
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8820-703: The Central Thais , Isan , and Northern Thais , 22 Austroasiatic peoples, with significant populations of Northern Khmer and Kuy , 11 Sino-Tibetan -speaking hill tribes , 3 Austronesian peoples being Malays , Moken , and Urak Lawoi . Immigrants in the nation includes communities like the Chinese , Indians , and Thai Portuguese . However, the Royal Thai Government officially recognizes only 62 of these ethnolinguistic groups. The Vietnamese government recognizes 54 ethnic groups , of which
9030-470: The Confederation of the Rhine was established, comprising 16 sovereigns and countries. This confederation, under French influence, de facto put an end to the Holy Roman Empire. On 6 August 1806, Francis proclaimed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, as he did not want Napoleon to succeed him. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was not recognized by George III of the United Kingdom who
9240-444: The Confederation of the Rhine , effectively a French satellite state . On 1 August, the Reichstag was informed by a French envoy that Napoleon no longer recognized the existence of the Holy Roman Empire and on the same day, nine of the princes who had formed the Confederation of the Rhine issued a proclamation in which they justified their actions by claiming that the Holy Roman Empire had already collapsed and ceased to function due to
9450-636: The Duchy of Berg and the County of Mark —imperial territories transferred to Joachim Murat —were to remain imperial fiefs or become part of the French Empire. As late as March 1806, Napoleon was uncertain whether they should remain nominally within the Empire. The Free Imperial Knights , who had survived the attack on their rights in the Rittersturm of 1803–04, were subject to a second attack and
9660-671: The Emperor of Austria , in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor, an attempt at maintaining parity between France and Austria while also illustrating that the Holy Roman title outranked them both. Austria's defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz in December 1805 and the secession of a large number of Francis II's German vassals in July 1806 to form the Confederation of the Rhine ,
9870-592: The European Union as a multinational state or a potential one. Many attempts have been made to define what a multinational state is. One complicating factor is that it is possible for members of a group that could be considered a nation to identify with two different nationalities simultaneously. As Ilan Peleg wrote in Democratizing the Hegemonic State : One can be a Scot and a Brit in
10080-697: The First French Empire . The empire was proclaimed by Francis II in 1804 in response to Napoleon 's declaration of the First French Empire, unifying all Habsburg possessions under one central government. It remained part of the Holy Roman Empire until the latter's dissolution in 1806. It continued fighting against Napoleon throughout the Napoleonic Wars , except for a period between 1809 and 1813, when Austria
10290-522: The First War of Schleswig (1848–1850). Sardinia allied itself with France for the conquest of Lombardy–Venetia . Austria was defeated in the 1859 armed conflict. The Treaties of Villafranca and Zürich removed Lombardy, except for the part east of the Mincio river, the so-called Mantovano . The Constitution of 1861 , also known as "February Patent", created a House of Lords ( Herrenhaus ) and
10500-518: The French republic , Napoleon , assumed the title " Emperor of the French " in 1804. Among others, one of the important figures attending the coronation was Pope Pius VII , probably fearing that Napoleon planned to conquer the Papal States . Pius VII was aware that Napoleon symbolically linked his imperial coronation with the imperial coronation of Charlemagne and would most likely have caught
10710-481: The Habsburg dynasty , had somewhat neglected their imperial role. Though Emperor Leopold I ( r. 1658–1705) had worked on strengthening the empire and promoting its interests, among other things pursuing a much appreciated cultural policy and successfully warring against the Ottomans, his sons and successors Joseph I ( r. 1705–1711) and Charles VI ( r. 1711–1740) spent more effort on
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#173275833880810920-480: The Habsburg monarchy , were horrified at the loss of the empire. Many of Francis II's former subjects questioned the legality of his actions; though his abdication was agreed to be perfectly legal, the dissolution of the empire and the release of all its vassals were seen as beyond the emperor's authority. As such, many of the empire's princes and subjects refused to accept that the empire was gone, with some commoners going so far as to believe that news of its dissolution
11130-548: The Javanese , Sundanese , Malays , Madurese , Bugis , Torajans , Bataks , Mandarese , Minangkabos , Betawi , Banjarese , Acehnese , Balinese , Dayaks , Sasaks , Cirebonese , Lampungese , Palembang , Gorontaloa , Minahasan , Nias , and Makassarese . Another group of indigenous peoples in the country are the native Melanesians in the Maluku Islands and Western New Guinea , which include tribes such as
11340-526: The Jus exclusivae . During his 1809–1814 imprisonment in France and after his subsequent release, Pope Pius VII looked to Emperor Francis as the protector of the church, for instance petitioning the emperor to help him in re-establishing the Papal States. In the aftermath of Francis II's abdication, the new Austrian Empire took steps to distance itself from the older empire. The symbols and formal titles of
11550-530: The Kinnauris , Gujjars , Lahaulis , Gaddis , Swanglas , Pangwalis , Khampas , and others; Arunachal Pradesh being the home of various tribes like the Abor , Hruso , Apatanis , Nyishis , Tagins , Galos , Khamptis , Mishmis , Monpa , any Naga tribes, Sherdukpens , and Singpho ; the Assam includes the Assamese, Bodo , and Karbi peoples . Indonesia is a very diverse country with over 1,300 ethnic groups. The vast majority of them speak Austronesian languages and among these tribal people groups are
11760-769: The Komi Republic ( Komi ), Karelia ( Karelians , ethnic Finns , Vepsians ), Ingushetia ( Ingushs ), North Ossetia-Alania ( Ossetians ), Sakha ( Yakuts , Evenki , Evens , Dolgans , Yukaghir ), Buryatia ( Buryats ), Khakassia ( Khakas ), the Altai Republic ( Altai , ethnic Kazakhs ), Tuva ( Tuvans ), and Dagestan (ethnic Azerbaijanis , Chechens , Avars , Dargins , Kumyks , Lezgins , Laks , Tabasarans , Nogais , Aguls , Rutuls , Tsakhurs , Tats and others). There are also 4 autonomous okrugs which are Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug ( Khanty & Mansi ), Nenets Autonomous Okrug ( Nenets ), Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug ( Nenets , Selkup ), and Chukotka Autonomous Okrug ( Chukchi ), 1 autonomous oblast , it
11970-497: The Pakistan Movement , which demanded a separate state for the Muslims of the British Raj . The movement was based on the two-nation theory put forward by Muhammad Ali Jinnah : the idea that Hindus and Muslims in British India represented not only different religious communities but also distinct nations, and hence that, in the event of Indian independence , they should be divided into two nation states. Jinnah (known in Pakistan as "Quaid-e-Azam", meaning "the great leader") outlined
12180-451: The Pashtuns , Tajiks , Hazaras , Uzbeks , Aimaqs , Turkmens , Balochs , and Sadats . Among the minor groups are the Pashayis , Nuristanis , Pamiris , Kurds , Kyrgyz , and several others. The four major groups that compose Bhutan's ethnic population are the Ngalops , which make up the majority, the Sharchops , the Lhotshampas , and the aboriginal or indigenous tribal peoples living in villages and communities scattered throughout
12390-404: The Peace of Pressburg (26 December). These created deliberate ambiguities in the imperial constitution. Bavaria , Baden and Württemberg were granted plénitude de la souveraineté (full sovereignty) while remaining a part of the Conféderation Germanique (Germanic Confederation), a novel name for the Holy Roman Empire. Likewise, it was left deliberately unclear whether the Duchy of Cleves ,
12600-533: The Québécois "form a nation within a united Canada". According to Canadian political philosopher Charles Blattberg, Canada should be seen as a multinational country. All Canadians are members of Canada as a civic or political community, a community of citizens, and this is a community that contains many other kinds within it. These include not only communities of ethnic, regional, religious, and civic (the provincial and municipal governments) sorts, but also national communities, which often include or overlap with many of
12810-399: The Santhals , Oraons , Mundas , Kharias , and Hos while both states are home to several other groups like the Hindustani -speaking peoples; Uttarakhand is where the Garhwalis , Kumaonis , and tribes like the Jaunsaris, Bhotiyas, Tharus, Bhoksas, Rajis, and Banrawats resides; Karnataka houses the Kannadigas , Tuluvas , and several others; Himachal Pradesh is home to tribes like
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#173275833880813020-410: The Second and Third Partitions of Poland ), taking its resources and powerful army with it. Despite the empire's mounting difficulties in the face of the wars with France, there was no large-scale popular unrest within its borders. Instead, the explanation for the end of the Holy Roman Empire lies in the realm of high politics. The empire's defeat in the Revolutionary Wars was the most decisive step in
13230-428: The Sindhis , Pashtuns , Balochs , Mohajirs , and Kashmiris . The members of these movements assert that Islam cannot be considered the sole basis for nationhood, and that Pakistan is therefore a multinational state. Their demands range from increased autonomy or the transformation of Pakistan into a federation , to the recognition of language rights for non-Urdu-speaking populations, to outright secession. Despite
13440-483: The US and Europe are living in Mainland China. In addition, there are also unrecognized ethnic groups , for example: Chuanqing people (穿青人), and others, who account for over 730,000 people. However, the Republic of China (ROC), which ruled mainland China from 1912 to 1949 and currently governs the island of Taiwan since 1945, had recognized five main ethnic groups under Five Races Under One Union : Han, Hui, Manchu, Mongol and Tibetan. Since retreating to Taiwan,
13650-455: The election of Francis II as Holy Roman Emperor, and exclaimed that "So the emperor whom I helped elect was the last emperor!—This step was no doubt to be expected, but that does not make its reality any less moving and crushing. It cuts off the last thread of hope to which one tried to cling". Baron von Wiessenberg, the Austrian envoy to the Electorate of Hesse , reported that the local elector, William I , had teared up and expressed lament at
13860-473: The first Minister-President of the Austrian Empire. The liberal Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire forced Metternich's resignation. Metternich is remembered for his success in maintaining the status quo and the Habsburg influence in international affairs. No Habsburg foreign minister following Metternich held a similar position within the empire for such a long time nor held such a vast influence on European foreign affairs. Historians generally consider
14070-413: The papacy . Through this Roman legacy, the Holy Roman Emperors claimed to be universal monarchs whose jurisdiction extended beyond their empire's formal borders to all of Christian Europe and beyond. The decline of the Holy Roman Empire was a long and drawn-out process lasting centuries. The formation of the first modern sovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought with it
14280-517: The "House of Habsburg"), not the old Archduchy of Austria . The title of Holy Roman Emperor remained pre-eminent to both "Emperor of the French" and "Emperor of Austria" as it embodied the traditional ideal of the universal Christian empire. Neither the Austrian nor the French title made claims to govern this universal empire and thus did not disturb the traditional and established world order. The imperial titles of Austria and France were seen as more or less royal titles (as they were hereditary) and in
14490-447: The "royal" part referred to the Apostolic Kingdom of Hungary. However, during World War I Austria-Hungary issued military stamps for use in occupied regions, with the text "K.u.K. Feldpost" or K.u.K. Militärpost. The Napoleonic Wars dominated Austrian foreign policy from 1804 to 1815. The Austrian army was one of the most formidable forces the French had to face. After Prussia signed a peace treaty with France on 5 April 1795, Austria
14700-455: The "state illnesses of the Holy Roman Empire" in his 1745 Grosses Universal-Lexicon . This view dates back to at least the Peace of Westphalia, where the empire was explicitly defined as not being a nation state . The 17th-century historian Samuel von Pufendorf famously described the empire as having an "unusual form of government" and derided it as a "monstrosity", lacking what was required for an effective and functional state. The lack of
14910-465: The 16 modern states of Germany . As partly sovereign polities, the German states, especially in more or less independently administered areas such as culture and education, harken back to the old empire. Historians Norman Stone and Johannes Burkhardt have compared the Holy Roman Empire, especially in regards to its locally administered component states, to the modern Federal Republic of Germany , with Burkhardt writing that "I can state unequivocally that
15120-548: The 180 sovereign states then in existence were ethnically and nationally homogeneous, if a homogeneous state was defined as one in which minorities made up less than 5 percent of the population. Sujit Choudhry therefore argues that "[t]he age of the agriculturally homogeneous state, if ever there was one, is over". Most countries in Sub-Saharan Africa are former colonies and, as such, are not drawn along national lines, making them truly multinational states. There
15330-613: The 1815 Congress of Vienna , including the local government reorganizations from the Revolutions of 1848 to the 1860 October Diploma : The old Habsburg possessions of Further Austria (in today's France, Germany and Switzerland) had already been lost in the 1805 Peace of Pressburg. From 1850, Croatia , Slavonia , and the Military Frontier constituted a single land with disaggregated provincial and military administration, and representation. Administratively, most of
15540-453: The 18th century, rulers throughout the continent had mused that a unitary German state could become the greatest power in Europe and it was in the interests of virtually everyone to keep central Europe "soft". Although some German romantics and nationalists argued that the empire had to die for Germany to be reborn, a large number of Imperial subjects had not given up hope that the "sick" empire might be cured and revived. The first few years of
15750-524: The 19th century saw extensive reorganizations and changes in power within the empire, with the 1801 Peace of Lunéville with France meaning the end of imperial jurisdiction in the Southern Netherlands and Italy , and the rise of powerful German rulers in the north, such as the Kings of Prussia , causing the consolidation of many previously separate imperial vassals and fiefs into the hands of
15960-685: The Ambonese, native Timorese peoples , Biak, Dani , Moi, Arfak, Amungme, Asmat , and Korowai , among others. Non-indigenous peoples includes Indos (half-Dutch, half-native Indonesians), Mardijkers , ethnic Chinese and Peranakans , ethnic Indians , Arabs , Iranians , Japanese , Koreans , and several others. The largest ethnicity in Indonesia is the Javanese which makes up 40% of the population and most of them live indigenously in Java island ,
16170-517: The Anglo-French coalition. Having abandoned its alliance with Russia, Austria was diplomatically isolated following the war, which contributed to Russia's non-intervention in the 1859 Franco-Austrian War , which meant the end of Austrian influence in Italy; and in the 1866 Austro-Prussian War , with the loss of its influence in most German-speaking land. Crown lands of the Austrian Empire after
16380-475: The Austrian Army to preparedness for another war. Johann Philipp von Stadion, the foreign minister, personally hated Napoleon due to an experience of confiscation of his possessions in France by Napoleon. In addition, the third wife of Francis I, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este , agreed with Stadion's efforts to begin a new war. Klemens Wenzel von Metternich , located in Paris, called for careful advance in
16590-459: The Austrian Empire was legally a single state, although the overarching structure and the status of its component lands at first stayed much the same as they had been under the composite monarchy. This was especially demonstrated by the status of the Kingdom of Hungary , a country that had never been a part of the Holy Roman Empire and which had always been considered a separate realm – a status that
16800-526: The Austrian Empire with other European powers whose monarchs had a similar interest in preserving conservative political direction, Metternich was able to establish the Austrian Empire's influence on European politics. Also, because Metternich used the fear of revolutions among European powers, which he also shared, he was able to establish security and predominance of the Habsburgs in Europe. Under Metternich, nationalist revolts in Austrian north Italy and in
17010-548: The Austrian foreign minister, other congresses would meet to resolve European foreign affairs. These included the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), and Verona (1822). The Metternich congresses aimed to maintain the political equilibrium among the European powers and prevent revolutionary efforts. These meetings also aimed to resolve foreign issues and disputes without resorting to violence. By means of these meetings and by allying
17220-438: The Austrian monarchy were altered to stress Austria as a distinct entity. Because the term Kaiserthum Österreich (Empire of Austria) had entered everyday speech, the monarchy soon dropped the original prefix "hereditary", which had been used from 1804 to 1806 to stress the difference between Austria and the Holy Roman Empire. In addition to the Austrian Empire (and France under Napoleon), the most prominent potential claimant to
17430-584: The Austrians fought to save the largely ungrateful Germany from the forces of Napoleon, only withdrawing and abandoning the empire when most of Germany betrayed them and joined Napoleon. Indeed, the assumption of a separate Austrian imperial title in 1804 did not mean that Francis II had any intentions to abdicate his prestigious position as the Roman emperor, the idea only began to be considered as circumstances beyond Habsburg control forced decisive actions to be taken. Compounded with fears of what now guaranteed
17640-715: The Congress of Vienna created the German Confederation , which was led by the Austrian emperors as " Bundespräsidium " and would prove to be ineffective. The Confederation was weakened by the German revolutions of 1848–1849 , whereafter the Frankfurt Parliament , elected by the people of the Confederation, attempted to proclaim a German Empire and designate Frederick William IV of Prussia as their emperor. Frederick William IV himself did not approve of
17850-408: The Congress of Vienna in 1815, Austria was the leading member of the German Confederation. Following the Congress, the major European powers agreed to meet and discuss resolutions in the event of future disputes or revolutions. Because of Metternich's main role in the architecture of the Congress, these meetings are also referred to as the "Metternich congress" or "Metternich system". Under Metternich as
18060-530: The East at Constantinople (Byzantium) . Imperial authority rested not on the emperor's own crown lands (though there were large crown lands in the 18th and 19th centuries) but on the emperor's role as the highest secular ruler in the world and a champion and advocate of the Catholic Church . The lack of a defined capital and consistent crown lands reinforced the idea that the imperial title was universal as it
18270-461: The French and assert their formal independence from the Empire. On 10 December 1805, Maximilian IV Joseph , the prince-elector and Duke of Bavaria , proclaimed himself king, followed by the Duke of Württemberg Frederick III on 11 December. Charles Frederick , Margrave of Baden , was given the title of Grand Duke on 12 December. Each of these new states became French allies. Francis II agreed to
18480-627: The French and he consciously revived Roman imperial symbols and aspired to create a new order in Europe, something akin to the universal dominion implicit in the title of Emperor of the Romans. Napoleon's vision of Charlemagne was completely different from the German vision of the old emperor, however. Instead of seeing Charlemagne as a German king, Napoleon viewed him as a Frankish conqueror who had extended French rule across Central Europe and Italy, something Napoleon aspired to accomplish as well. Austria
18690-460: The French ultimatum, but stressed that the interpretation of the Peace of Pressburg by the imperial estates made it impossible for Francis to fulfill the obligations he had undertaken in his electoral capitulation . Holy Roman Emperors had abdicated before—the most notable example being the abdication of Charles V in 1556—but Francis II's abdication was unique. While previous abdications had returned
18900-457: The French wars and effectivize the empire's current semi-feudal structure. Although there were huge territorial changes, notably the almost complete abolition of any church territory and significant territorial gains for Bavaria , Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau , the most important changes were in the empire's electoral college. Salzburg was added as a fourth Catholic elector, while Württemberg , Baden and Hesse-Kassel became
19110-545: The German states were forcibly crushed. At home, he pursued a similar policy to suppress revolutionary and liberal ideals. He employed the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which used strict censorship of education, press and speech to repress revolutionary and liberal concepts. Metternich also used a wide-ranging spy network to dampen down unrest. Metternich operated very freely with regard to foreign policy under Emperor Francis I's reign. Francis died in 1835. This date marks
19320-689: The German vassals of the Holy Roman Empire had been released from their obligations, Francis II and his successors continued to rule a large German-speaking population and the Holy Roman Imperial Regalia continued to be kept within their domains (and are to this day stored and displayed at the Imperial Treasury at the Hofburg in Vienna). The dynasty retained its prominent status among the royal families of Europe and were in
19530-518: The Habsburgs and George III were complicated; in diplomacy, the court at Vienna had for many years refused to refer to the British king as "His Majesty" since he was only a king, not an emperor. The Habsburg diplomat Ludwig von Cobenzl , fearing the consequences of Napoleon's coronation, is quoted as having advised Holy Roman Emperor Francis II that "‘as Roman Emperor, Your Majesty has enjoyed till now precedence ahead of all European potentates, including
19740-596: The Hohenzollern dynasty, these plans were dropped in September 1806 after they found little support, and Emperor Alexander I of Russia objected to them. Because the Hohenzollerns lacked imperial ancestry they did not see themselves as an imperial dynasty and, even after Napoleon's ultimate defeats in 1813 and 1815, their position changed little. Although Germany was united into the German Empire in 1871 under
19950-468: The Hohenzollern emperor Wilhelm I , the proclamation of the new empire was ideologically problematic and the Hohenzollerns found themselves mostly ill-at-ease with its implications. Attempts were made to associate the German Empire with the institutions of the Holy Roman Empire, but its emperors continued to enumerate themselves after the Kings of Prussia; Emperor Frederick III ( r. 1888)
20160-464: The Hohenzollerns were not interested in going through with such a plan. Though the Prussian rulers and their officials expressed sorrow at the collapsing state of the Holy Roman Empire from 1792 onwards, they were also critical of nostalgia for Germany's history under imperial rule. The Prussians viewed the survival chances of the Holy Roman Empire as very low and saw the French as the true successors of
20370-463: The Holy Roman Emperor was always pre-eminent. The pre-eminence of the emperor was an expression of the idea that the Holy Roman Empire, theoretically, extended over all Christians in a universal manner. Because the empire at no point ruled over all of Christian Europe, this idea was always an ideal rather than a reality and the empire's Roman status was never accepted by the Roman Emperors in
20580-530: The Holy Roman Empire occurred on 6 August 1806, when the last Holy Roman Emperor , Francis II of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine , abdicated his title and released all Imperial states and officials from their oaths and obligations to the empire. Since the Middle Ages , the Holy Roman Empire had been recognized by Western Europeans as the legitimate continuation of the ancient Roman Empire due to its emperors having been proclaimed as Roman emperors by
20790-553: The Holy Roman Empire and the Prussians continued to be represented in the Reichstag, Prussia ceased to compete for influence in imperial affairs. Austria stood alone as the protector of the states in southern Germany, many of which began considering making their own separate peace with France. When the Austrians learnt that Württemberg and Baden had opened formal negotiations with France, the armies sent by these two states were disbanded and disarmed in 1796, causing resentment against
21000-419: The Holy Roman Empire represented "universal antagonists", claiming that jurisdiction over all the world was theirs by right through their connection to Ancient Rome and their role as earthly representatives of Jesus Christ . Kings who claimed their own sovereignty free from the empire did so in the role of a rex in regno suo , a ruler who could wield the legal powers of an emperor (as absolute monarch) within
21210-561: The Holy Roman Empire's legacy (in the sense of ruling Germany) in the wake of its collapse and dissolution was the Kingdom of Prussia, ruled by the House of Hohenzollern . Alongside the growing crown lands of the Habsburgs, Prussia represented the sole major power in Central Europe during the last century or so of Holy Roman imperial rule. It was frequently rumored that the Prussians had imperial ambitions, and Frederick II of Prussia
21420-494: The Imperial constitution as there were already other examples of dual monarchies within the empire: states such as Prussia and Sweden were not part of the empire, but their possessions within the empire were. The War of the Third Coalition came too soon for Austria, which moved against France in September 1805. Defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz on 2 December 1805, Austria had to accept terms dictated by Napoleon in
21630-408: The Imperial crown to the electors so that they might proclaim a new emperor, Francis II's abdication simultaneously dissolved the empire itself so that there were no more electors. The Holy Roman Empire, an institution which had lasted for just over a thousand years, did not pass unnoticed or unlamented. The dissolution of the empire sent shockwaves through Germany, with most of the reactions within
21840-433: The Imperial title was instead bestowed on her husband, Emperor Francis I ( r. 1745–1765), she burst out in laughter when she saw him in his imperial coronation robes, regarding his coronation as "Kasperltheater" ( Punch and Judy show). Maria Theresa's and Francis I's son and successor, Joseph II ( r. 1765–1790), was even more radical in his disregard for the empire. In 1778, Joseph II pondered abdicating
22050-486: The Metternich era as a period of stability : the Austrian Empire fought no wars nor did it undergo any radical internal reforms. However, it was also thought of as a period of economic growth and prosperity in the Austrian Empire. The population of Austria rose to 37.5 million by 1843. Urban expansion also occurred and the population of Vienna reached 400,000. During the Metternich era, the Austrian Empire also maintained
22260-557: The Old Reich was the true predecessor of the Federal Republic of Germany" and Stone writing, in regards to the modern republic's foundation, that "This time it [has been] a Germany minus Prussia and Austria. It was a return to the old Holy Roman Empire, to a Germany where true civilisation existed on a very local level, that of the prince-bishopric". Despite the Holy Roman Empire ultimately failing to prevent war with France,
22470-611: The ROC government recognizes 16 groups of Taiwanese aborigines , which constitutes a number 569,000 or 2.38% of the island 's population. The PRC classifies them as Gāoshān . India has more than 2,000 ethnolinguistic groups which includes over 645 indigenous tribes with 52 major tribes among them, and over 80,000 subcultures, and every major religion is represented being Hinduism , Islam , Adivasi , Sikhism , Buddhism , and Christianity as are four major language families ( Indo-Aryan , Dravidian , Austroasiatic , and Sino-Tibetan ) and
22680-467: The Russian Empire in November 1804. This convention was to assure mutual cooperation in the case of a new war against France. Austrian unwillingness to join the Third Coalition was overcome by British subsidies, but the Austrians withdrew from the war yet again after a decisive defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz. Although the Austrian budget suffered from wartime expenditures and its international position
22890-466: The Russian emperor". Though Napoleon's imperial title was viewed with distaste, Austrian officials immediately realized that if they were to refuse to accept him as an emperor, war with France would be renewed. Instead, the focus became on how to accept Napoleon as an emperor while still maintaining the pre-eminence of their own emperor and empire. France had officially accepted parity with Austria as
23100-725: The Shan Major National Ethnic Race includes 33 ethnic groups speaking languages in at least four widely differing language families. Many unrecognized ethnic groups exist, the largest being the Burmese Chinese and Panthay (who together form 3% of the population), Burmese Indians (who form 2% of the population), Rohingya , Anglo-Burmese and Gurkha . Nepal is a multi-ethnic country with over 100 ethnic groups. Most ethnic groups fall into one of two categories and either speak Indo-Aryan languages or Sino-Tibetan languages . The official language of
23310-622: The United Kingdom, a Jew and an American in the United States, an Igbo and a Nigerian in Nigeria ... One might find it hard to be a Slovak and a Hungarian, an Arab and an Israeli, a Breton and a Frenchman. A state may also be a society , and a multiethnic society has people belonging to more than one ethnic group, in contrast to societies that are ethnically homogeneous . By some definitions of "society" and "homogeneous", virtually all contemporary national societies are multiethnic. The scholar David Welsh argued in 1993 that fewer than 20 of
23520-693: The Viet (Kinh) is the largest; according to official Vietnamese figures (2019 census), ethnic Vietnamese account for 85.32% of the nation's population and the non-Vietnamese ethnic groups account for the remaining percent. The ethnic Vietnamese inhabit a little less than half of Vietnam, while the ethnic minorities inhabit the majority of Vietnam's land (albeit the least fertile parts of the country). The central highland peoples commonly termed Degar or Montagnards ( mountain people ) consist of two main ethnolinguistic types-- Malayo-Polynesian and Mon–Khmer . About 30 groups of various cultures and dialects are spread over
23730-653: The abolition of serfdom , cancellation of censorship and a promise made by Ferdinand I of Austria said to implement a constitution throughout the whole Empire. After the death of Prince Felix of Schwarzenberg in 1852, the Minister of the Interior Baron Alexander von Bach largely dictated policy in Austria and Hungary. Bach centralized administrative authority for the Austrian Empire, but he also endorsed reactionary policies that reduced freedom of
23940-489: The ancient Carolingians , an enemy which they believed could not be defeated by normal military means. The reluctance of the Hohenzollerns to assume an imperial title shifted in 1806 as they feared that, with the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, Napoleon might aspire to claim the hypothetical position of "Emperor of Germany". Though preparations were made to create an "imperial union" in northern Germany, with an emperor of
24150-420: The borders of his own territory due to the emperors not having protected his people from foreign enemies. Ambitious emperors, such as Charles V ( r. 1519–1556) and Ferdinand II ( r. 1619–1637), who sought to combine universal jurisdiction with actual universal temporal rule and universal imperial authority, represented threats to the continued existence of the countries of Europe. Charles V
24360-476: The capital of the Habsburg monarchy), where he delivered Francis II's official proclamation from a balcony overlooking a large square. Written copies of the proclamation were dispatched to the diplomats of the Habsburg monarchy on 11 August alongside a note which informed former princes of the empire that Austria would compensate those who had been paid from the Imperial treasury. The abdication did not acknowledge
24570-806: The case of the war against France. The defeat of French army at the Battle of Bailén in Spain on 27 July 1808 triggered the war. On 9 April 1809, an Austrian force of 170,000 men attacked Bavaria . Despite military defeats of the Austrian army —especially the Battles of Marengo , Ulm , Austerlitz and Wagram —and consequently lost territory throughout the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (the Treaties of Campo Formio in 1797, Luneville in 1801, Pressburg in 1806, and Schönbrunn in 1809), Austria played
24780-427: The catastrophic fall of ancient Troy as a metaphor, due to its association with the notion of total destruction and the end of a culture. The image of the apocalypse was also frequently used, associating the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire with an impending end of the world (echoing medieval legends of a Last Roman Emperor , a figure prophesied to be active during the end times ). Criticism and protests against
24990-414: The conflict on the side of the Habsburgs in a formal Reichskrieg proves that imperial ideals were still alive by the late 18th century. The key point in which fortunes shifted was Prussia's abandonment of the war effort. Prussia had been the only true counterweight to Austria's influence in the institutions of the empire. Though the western parts of Prussia, such as Brandenburg , remained formal parts of
25200-669: The country is Nepali , earlier known as Gorkhali in the Kingdom of Nepal , which is part of the Indo-Aryan group and is the spoken by majority of the population. The Indo-Aryan languages languages are spoken by Madhesi people ( Maithili , Bhojpuri , Awadhi ) and Tharu ethnic groups which constitutes majority of the speakers in southern Nepal in the Terai region. The people who speak Sino-Tibetan languages includes Tamang , Newari , Magar , Gurung , Kiranti and Sherpa ethnic groups in central and northern Nepal. Much of
25410-508: The country's various nationalities and to foster a South African identity. Many of the nationalities found in South Africa are also found in bordering countries, and in some cases, more members live in South Africa than in the country where the group originated. For example, there are more Sotho , Tswana, and Swazi people living in South Africa than in the bordering nation states of Lesotho , Botswana , and Eswatini , respectively. In
25620-897: The country. Russia is also home to small Buddhist populations, such as the nomadic Buryats in Buryatia, and the Kalmyks; native to Kalmykia, the only Buddhist region in Europe. There are also the Shamanistic peoples of Siberia and the Far North ; the Finno-Ugric peoples of Northwest Russia and the Volga region ; the Korean inhabitants of Sakhalin ; and the diverse peoples of the North Caucasus . Russia's official language
25830-561: The country. There are also Tibetan refugees that have been around since 1959 during the 1959 Tibetan Rebellion . While the ethnic Khmer make up 90-94% of Cambodia , others consists of four different major minority groups: the Chams , the indigenous highland Khmer Loeu tribes, the ethnic Chinese , and the ethnic Vietnamese , in addition to other smaller minority groups such as the Khmer Krom . The People's Republic of China (PRC)
26040-462: The court, and revolutionaries in the streets, may have caused the spread of the revolutions throughout the monarchy. It is stipulated that Metternich's departure emboldened liberal factions in Austria and Hungary, but this cannot be confirmed for certain. During the Crimean War , Austria maintained a policy of hostile neutrality towards Russia , and, while not going to war, was supportive of
26250-503: The crown lands excluding Hungary, Croatia, Slavonia, Transylvania, Lombardy–Venetia and the Military Frontier were divided into Kreise (' circles '), an administrative division introduced under Maria Theresa in the 18th century. Following the revolutions of 1848 a brief attempt was made to introduce modern-style political districts (in addition to the Kreise ), but the reforms of Bach in 1853/54 instead instituted
26460-420: The decline of Metternich's influence in the Austrian Empire. Francis' heir was his son Ferdinand I, but he suffered from health issues. Ferdinand's accession preserved the Habsburg dynastic succession, but he was not capable of ruling. The leadership of the Austrian Empire was transferred to a state council composed of Metternich, Francis I's brother Archduke Louis, and Count Franz Anton Kolowrat , who later became
26670-476: The defeat in the Battle of Austerlitz. In the face of Napoleon's assumption of the title "Emperor of the French" in 1804 and the Austrian defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, the Habsburg monarchy began contemplating whether the imperial title and the empire as a whole were worth defending. Many of the states nominally serving the Holy Roman Emperor, such as Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria, had openly defied Imperial authority and sided with Napoleon. Even then,
26880-477: The emperor and, combined with losses to France, suggesting that the Habsburg emperor was no longer capable of protecting his traditional vassals in Germany. In the wake of the wars with France, there was a substantial reorganization of Imperial territory (the so-called Reichsdeputationshauptschluss , supported by Prussia), with the Habsburg monarchy meaning to compensate those princes who had lost territory in
27090-450: The emperors had been formally titled as "Elected Roman Emperor" since 1508, when Emperor Maximilian I took the title without the need for a papal coronation , the universalist character of the empire was sustained through the emperor's feudal authority extending beyond just the institutions that had been developed within the formal imperial borders. Imperial territories held by rulers of other realms remained imperial vassals. For instance,
27300-512: The empire could be revived and modernized. The Holy Roman Empire finally began its true terminal decline during and after its involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars . Although the empire defended itself quite well initially, war with France and Napoleon proved catastrophic. In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself as the Emperor of the French , which Francis II responded to by proclaiming himself
27510-613: The empire's dissolution were typically censored, especially in the French-administered Confederation of the Rhine. Among the aspects most criticized by the general populace was the removal or replacement of the traditional intercessions for the empire and emperor in the daily church prayers throughout former imperial territory. Suppression from France, combined with examples of excessive retribution against pro-empire advocates, ensured that these protests soon died down. In an official capacity, Prussia's response
27720-403: The empire. Multinational state A multinational state or a multinational union is a sovereign entity that comprises two or more nations or states . This contrasts with a nation state , where a single nation accounts for the bulk of the population. Depending on the definition of "nation" (which touches on ethnicity , language, and political identity), a multinational state
27930-544: The establishment of Urdu as the country's sole official language is a form of cultural imperialism that ignores the heritage of Pakistan's diverse peoples. The most successful of these movements was Bengali nationalism , which led to the creation of the Bengali -speaking nation-state of Bangladesh . The movement asserted that Urdu's official status gave an unfair advantage to Muhajirs (most of whom speak Urdu as their mother tongue) and Punjabis (whose mother tongue, Punjabi ,
28140-437: The ethnic Lao who make up the majority in the country, 32 Mon-Khmer peoples, 7 Tibeto-Burmese peoples, and 2 Hmong - Loumien peoples. They are generally spread across the nation each with their own distinct traditions, cultures and languages. When it was formed on 16 September 1963, Malaysia comprised four independent, self-governing nations: Malaya , Singapore , Sabah , and Sarawak . In 1965, Singapore seceded from
28350-607: The ethnic groups migrated from neighbouring countries over the centuries from India and Tibet . Pakistan 's population comprises various ethnolinguistic groups; the major groups are the Punjabis , Pashtuns , Sindhis , Saraikis , Balochs , Brahuis , Paharis , and Muhajirs . Minor groups includes the Kashmiris , Chitralis , Shina , Baltis , Kohistanis , Torwalis , Hazaras , Burusho , Wakhis , Kalash , Siddis , Uzbeks , Nuristanis , Pamiris , Hazarewals and several other minorities. Present-day Pakistan arose out of
28560-471: The eyes of many of their subjects still the only true imperial family. Although the new Austrian Empire lacked many of the key elements of the Holy Roman Empire, it remained close in practice and ideals to the pre-1806 empire. In many respects, the Austrian emperors continued to act as protectors of the Catholic Church, just as the Holy Roman emperors had before them, continuing to claim the right of
28770-508: The fact that Punjabis are widely seen as the dominant ethnic group in Pakistan, both economically and politically, there is also a small Punjabi movement that asserts that the Punjabi language has been unfairly subordinated to Urdu and supports the reestablishment of cultural and economic links with East Punjab in India. The Philippines has more than 182 distinct ethnolinguistic groups that
28980-630: The federation. Today, Malaya, Sabah, and Sarawak each have their own ethnic majority. Generally, however, Malaysia is considered to have three major groups: Bumiputeras ( Malays , Orang Asal , and Peranakans ), ethnic Chinese , and ethnic Indians . While the Malays make up the majority of population in the country, the Ibans for Sarawak and the Kadazan-Dusun , Murut , and Sama-Bajau peoples for Sabah are dominant in their respective states. Malay
29190-673: The five largest groups—the Kikuyu, Luo , Luhya , Kamba , and Kalenjin —account for 70 percent of Kenyans. The largest nation in Nigeria is the Hausa-Fulani , which accounts for 29 percent of the country's population. However, the group actually encompasses two distinct ethnicities: the Hausa and the Fulani (or Fulbe). While both ethnicities are found in large areas of West Africa , it
29400-490: The former imperial boundaries being rage, grief or shame. Even the signatories of the Confederation of the Rhine were outraged; the Bavarian emissary to the Imperial diet, Rechberg, stated that he was "furious" due to having "put his signature to the destruction of the German name", referring to his state's involvement in the confederation, which had effectively doomed the empire. From a legal standpoint, Francis II's abdication
29610-493: The fourth, fifth and sixth Protestant electors, giving the Protestants a majority for the first time in history and raising doubts whether Emperor Francis II would be able to work together with his Reichstag. Although the Austrian regime spent much time and resources attempting to make the new arrangement work, the general verdict at the time was that the reorganization had essentially killed the empire. The First Consul of
29820-485: The future. A myriad of reasons were used to justify the Austrian Empire's creation, including the number of subjects under the Habsburg Monarchy, the vast extent of his crown lands and the long association between the Habsburg family and the elective Holy Roman imperial title. Another important point used to justify its creation was that Francis was, in the traditional sense, the supreme Christian monarch and he
30030-431: The government of such a state." This movement culminated in the creation of Pakistan in 1947 through the partition of India . Urdu was then promoted as the national language of all South Asian Muslims . However, Pakistan remains ethnically diverse. Punjabis are the largest ethnolinguistic group, but at 45 percent of the population, they do not make up an absolute majority. Furthermore, only 8 percent of Pakistanis speak
30240-579: The gradual undermining of the empire. The conflict between France and the Holy Roman Empire had begun with the French declaring war on the newly crowned Emperor Francis II of the Habsburg dynasty only in his capacity as the King of Hungary . The fact that much of the wider empire (including influential figures such as the King of Prussia and the Archbishop-Elector of Mainz ), however unwilling, joined
30450-467: The greatest threats to the traditional (and theoretical) universal jurisdiction accorded to the Holy Roman Emperor and the pope throughout the Christian world was the emergence of modern sovereign territorial states in the 16th and 17th centuries, which meant the rise of the idea that jurisdiction was the same thing as direct control of territory. To the rulers of territorial states, both the papacy and
30660-680: The group aside from them Nigeria as about 250–500 other ethnic nationalities considered minorities with some large enough to control the outcomes of elections in states such as the Igala and Urhobo. While some are so small that they only show up in one local Government area. Present-day South Africa is the successor state to the Union of South Africa , which was formed from four British colonies in 1910. South Africa has eleven official languages ( Afrikaans , English, Ndebele , Pedi , Sotho , Swazi , Tsonga , Tswana , Venda , Xhosa , and Zulu ) and formally recognizes several other languages spoken by minority nations. Speakers of each language may be of
30870-431: The highland territory. Other minority groups include the Chams —remnants of the once-mighty Champa Kingdom, conquered by the Vietnamese through a progress called " Nam Tiến ", Hmong , Chinese , and Thái . Montenegro is the only European state with no ethnic majority, but many others have ethnic minorities that form a majority within a province or region (see multilingual countries and regions of Europe ). Russia
31080-495: The humiliating Treaty of Pressburg , signed in Pressburg (today Bratislava , Slovakia) on 26 December 1805, in which he recognised these new titles and ceded large amounts of territory to Napoleon's German allies and the French Satellite Kingdom of Italy . In practice this meant the dissolution of the long-lived Holy Roman Empire and a reorganization under a Napoleonic model of the German states. Austrian claims on those German states were renounced without exception. On 12 July 1806,
31290-564: The idea that jurisdiction corresponded to actual territory governed, threatened the universal nature of the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire by the time of the 18th century was widely regarded by contemporaries, both inside and outside the empire, as a highly "irregular" monarchy and "sick", having an "unusual" form of government. The empire lacked both a central standing army and a central treasury and its monarchs, formally elective rather than hereditary, could not exercise effective central control. Even then, most contemporaries believed that
31500-487: The idea, instead favoring a restoration of the Holy Roman Empire under the Habsburgs of Austria, though neither the Habsburgs themselves nor the German revolutionaries, still active at the time, would have approved of that idea. In the Austrian Empire , the Habsburg dynasty continued to act as a substitute for nationality, though the Austrian imperial title was not (unlike for instance the French or Russian imperial titles) associated with any nationality in particular. Though
31710-411: The imperial princes. Despite the widespread idea that the Holy Roman Empire was "sick", the empire was not in terminal decline before its involvement in the French Revolutionary Wars from the 1790s onwards. In the 18th century, imperial institutions were experiencing something akin to a renaissance. The empire represented the safest and best guarantee for the rights of smaller states and territories in
31920-485: The imperial title and in 1784 when he hoped to exchange his lands in Belgium, the Austrian Netherlands , for the Electorate of Bavaria , he considered giving up the imperial title and granting it to the Elector of Bavaria, Charles Theodore , as part of the deal. The empire was not necessarily doomed because of Habsburg disinterest; in times where the emperors disregarded the greater empire, the more powerful imperial vassals usually took steps to strengthen German unity among
32130-423: The imperial title. During an interregnum, the two imperial vicars Saxony and Bavaria would be entitled to exercise imperial authority and, since both were aligned with Napoleon, such an arrangement could cause an abdicated Francis (as only Emperor of Austria) to become a vassal of Napoleon (as Holy Roman Emperor). Though there is no concrete evidence that Napoleon actually aspired to become Holy Roman Emperor, it
32340-417: The interests of their own dynasty than on the interests of the empire at large. In 1705, diplomatic duties and responsibilities were transferred to the Court Chancellery at Vienna from the Imperial Chancellery. Upon Charles VI's death, his daughter Maria Theresa inherited most of his titles but not the Imperial crown, as a woman was not eligible for Imperial election and so went to her rival Charles VII . When
32550-410: The kings of both Sweden and Denmark accepted vassalage in regards to their German lands until 1806, when these lands were formally incorporated into their kingdoms. The Reformation of the 16th century had made managing the empire more difficult and made its role as "holy" questionable. Despite Lutheranism and Calvinism being tolerated from 1555 and 1648 onwards respectively, Catholicism remained
32760-414: The loss of "a constitution to which Germany had for so long owed its happiness and freedom". Internationally, the empire's demise was met with mixed or indifferent reactions. Alexander I of Russia offered no response and Christian VII of Denmark formally incorporated his German lands into his kingdoms a few months after the empire's dissolution. Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (who notably hadn't recognized
32970-465: The marriage between Napoleon and Francis I's daughter, Marie-Louise; however, by the 1812 campaign, he had realised the inevitability of Napoleon's downfall and took Austria to war against France. Metternich's influence at the Congress of Vienna was remarkable, and he became not only the premier statesman in Europe but the virtual ruler of the Empire until 1848—the Year of revolutions —and the rise of liberalism equated to his political downfall. The result
33180-523: The minds of the Austrians, there still remained only one true empire and one true emperor in Europe. To illustrate this, Francis II's official imperial title read "elected Roman Emperor, ever Augustus , hereditary Emperor of Austria", placing the Austrian title behind the Roman title. Though Napoleon was reluctant to tie his own imperial title to any concessions, he needed recognition from Austria to secure wider recognition and thus agreed to recognize Francis II's new title. Prior to his own coronation, he sent
33390-474: The most populous island in the country. Generally, people who live outside of Jakarta still retain the ethnic language and utilize it in daily conversations. As a result, formation of distinct dialects each unique to the regions, is prominently used among the population. The government of Laos recognizes over 160 ethnic groups with 49 main ethnicities. These main Laotian ethnic groups separated into 4 linguistic groups which are 8 Lao-Tai peoples which includes
33600-478: The national language, Urdu, as their mother tongue . As a result, many nationalist movements that oppose the two-nation theory have emerged, arguing that Pakistan is not only a linguistically diverse state but also a multinational one, and that, therefore, each ethnolinguistic group of Pakistan is a distinct nation. Common grievances of these movements include the idea that Punjabis dominate Pakistan politically and economically, thus marginalizing other groups, and that
33810-406: The need of a new coronation, as he had already had an imperial coronation) on 11 August 1804, in addition to already being the Holy Roman Emperor. Cobenzl advised that a separate hereditary Austrian title would also allow the Habsburg to maintain parity with other rulers (since the Holy Roman title was viewed by Cobenzl as merely honorific) and ensure elections to the position of Holy Roman Emperor in
34020-441: The negotiations and in the eyes of Pope Innocent X , the peace destroyed the connection between pope and emperor which had held Europe together since the time of Charlemagne eight centuries prior. Where international disputes between the rulers of Europe had previously been solved and mediated by the pope and/or emperor, the 17th century saw the true emergence of the modern system of international relations and diplomacy. One of
34230-408: The new order in Europe and that restoring it was not in the interest of the Habsburg monarchy. In an official capacity, the papacy considered the fact that the Holy Roman Empire was not restored at the Congress of Vienna (alongside other decisions made during the negotiations) to be "detrimental to the interests of the Catholic religion and the rights of the church". In the Holy Roman Empire's place,
34440-511: The now unified Italy. After the Austrian army was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the German Confederation was dissolved, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted. By this act, the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria as two separate entities joined on an equal basis to form the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The frequent abbreviation K.u.K. ( Kaiserliche und Königliche , "Imperial and Royal") does not refer to that dual monarchy but originated in 1745, when
34650-423: The only recognized faith. Even then, the Imperial Church diminished from the 16th century onwards, with some church territories secularised or always governed by the same family. The "holy" nature of the empire became even more questionable when the possibility of permanent peace with the Ottoman Empire, widely seen as the mortal enemies of Christian Europe, was accepted through the 1699 Peace of Karlowitz . Both
34860-419: The other kinds. He thus recognizes the following nations within Canada: those formed by the various First Nations , that of francophone Quebecers, that of the anglophones who identify with English Canadian culture , and perhaps that of the Acadians . While Pashto and Dari being Afghanistan 's two official languages, the nation is separated into several ethnolinguistic groups which the major ones include
35070-408: The papacy and the Holy Roman Empire continued to claim their traditional rights of universal jurisdiction into the early modern period, that it was their right to exercise jurisdiction throughout the entire world, even if they did not have de facto control over particular territories. Conjointly with the papacy, the Holy Roman Empire represented the recognized centre of the Christian world, and one of
35280-453: The papacy; in early 1806, he warned Pope Pius VII that "Your Holiness is sovereign in Rome but I am its Emperor". More crucially than fearing Napoleon potentially usurping the title, the abdication was also intended to buy time for Austria to recover from its losses as it was assumed that France would meet it with some concessions. Although the Roman title and the tradition of a universal Christian monarchy were still considered prestigious and
35490-456: The past, this has led to conflict. Lesotho still claims large swathes of South Africa, and attempts have been made to cede some South African territory to Botswana and Eswatini. All three states were intended to be incorporated in the Union of South Africa, but those plans never came to fruition because of power struggles within their apartheid governments. Since 2010, under the presidency of Evo Morales , Bolivia has been officially defined as
35700-402: The people within the former empire, its collapse made them uncertain and fearful of their future, and the future of Germany itself. Contemporary reports from Vienna describe the dissolution of the empire as "incomprehensible" and the general public's reaction as one of horror. In contrast to the fears of the general public, many contemporary intellectuals and artists saw Napoleon as a herald of
35910-437: The pillars upon which it rested. It was always its influence and its place in the recognized world order that gave the Holy Roman Empire its true power, rather than the actual extent of its territorial domains. The dual rule of pope and emperor was effectively ended at the Peace of Westphalia at the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, wherein the empire was severed from the papacy for good. The papacy played no role in
36120-431: The press and abandoned public trials. He later represented the Absolutist (or Klerikalabsolutist ) party, which culminated in the concordat of August 1855 that gave the Roman Catholic Church control over education and family life. This period in the history of the Austrian Empire would become known as the era of neo-absolutism, or Bach's absolutism. The pillars of the so-called Bach system ( Bachsches System ) were, in
36330-459: The principal commission's secretariat, hoped that the end of the Holy Roman Empire might yet be averted. The general opinion among the Austrian government was however that abdication was inevitable and that it should be combined with a dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire through relieving the vassals of the emperor of their duties and obligations. A formal dissolution of the empire was perceived as necessary, as it would prevent Napoleon from acquiring
36540-452: The rest of the empire. After Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 was adopted, joining the Kingdom of Hungary and the Empire of Austria to form Austria-Hungary . Changes shaping the nature of the Holy Roman Empire took place during conferences in Rastatt (1797–1799) and Regensburg (1801–1803). On 24 March 1803, the Imperial Recess (German: Reichsdeputationshauptschluss )
36750-425: The safety of many of the smaller German states, the poet Christoph Martin Wieland lamented that Germany had now fallen into an "apocalyptic time" and stating "Who can bear this disgrace, which weighs down upon a nation which was once so glorious?—may God improve things, if it is still possible to improve them!". To some, the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was seen as the final end of the ancient Roman Empire. In
36960-433: The separate imperial title of Austria yet) issued a somewhat provocative proclamation to the denizens of his German lands ( Swedish Pomerania and Bremen-Verden ) on 22 August 1806, stating that the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire "would not destroy the German nation" and expressed hopes that the empire might be revived. The dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was constituted by Francis II's own personal abdication of
37170-526: The significance of the empire was not based on actual control of resources, but on prestige. The main idea behind Francis II's actions in 1806 was to lay the groundwork needed to avoid additional future wars with Napoleon and France. One concern held by the Habsburg monarchy was that Napoleon might aspire to claim the title of Holy Roman Emperor. Napoleon was attracted to Charlemagne 's legacy; replicas of Charlemagne's crown and sword had been made for (but not used during) Napoleon's coronation as Emperor of
37380-416: The similarity between Napoleon's title and Emperor of the Romans , the title used by Francis II and all Holy Roman emperors before him. Through his presence at the ceremony, Pius VII symbolically approved of the transfer of imperial power ( translatio imperii ) from the Romans (and thus the Franks and Germans) to the French. Napoleon's coronation received a mixed reaction in the Holy Roman Empire. Although
37590-789: The theory as follows: It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. They neither intermarry nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Their aspect on life and of life are different. It
37800-469: The title Emperor of the French and established the First French Empire . Initially Francis II/I continued to hold both titles but abdicated the throne of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. This new empire or " Kaiserthum " ( lit. ' Kaiser -dom ' ) comprised all the lands of the Habsburg monarchy , which had until then been legally separate realms in personal union (a composite monarchy ) under Francis and his predecessors. By contrast,
38010-439: The title and the release of all vassals and imperial states from their obligations and duties to the emperor. The title of Holy Roman Emperor (theoretically the same title as Roman emperor) and the Holy Roman Empire itself as an idea and institution (the theoretically universally sovereign imperium ) were never formally abolished. The continued existence of a universal empire, though without defined territory and lacking an emperor,
38220-640: The vast majority of them speaking Austronesian languages , with the Tagalogs , Bisayans , Ilocanos , Bikols , Kapampangans , Pangasinans , Ivatans , Romblomanons , Masbateños , Kamayos , Moros , Igorots , Lumads , Mangyans , and Zamboangueños being the most prevalent. Among the immigrants and mixed peoples are the Spanish Filipinos , Chinese Filipinos , Japanese Filipinos , Mestizo de Españols , Mestizo de Sangleys , Tornatrás , Indian Filipinos , Sangils , Jewish Filipinos , and American Filipinos . There are some 70 ethnic groups in Thailand which make up 24 ethnolinguistically Tai peoples such as
38430-429: The words of Adolf Fischhof , four "armies": a standing army of soldiers, a sitting army of office holders, a kneeling army of priests and a fawning army of sneaks . Prisons were full of political prisoners, like Czech nationalist journalist and writer Karel Havlíček Borovský who was forcibly expatriated (1851–1855) to Brixen . This exile undermined Borovský's health and he died soon afterwards. This affair earned Bach
38640-429: The words of Christian Gottlob von Voigt, a minister in Weimar , "if poetry can go hand in hand with politics, then the abdication of the imperial dignity offers a wealth of material. The Roman Empire now takes its place in the sequence of vanquished empires". In the words of the English historian James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce in his 1864 work on the Holy Roman Empire, the empire was the "oldest political institution in
38850-406: The world" and the same institution as the one founded by Augustus in 27 BC. Writing of the empire, Bryce stated that "nothing else so directly linked the old world to the new—nothing else displayed so many strange contrasts of the present and the past, and summed up in those contrasts so much of European history". When confronted by the fall and collapse of their empire, many contemporaries employed
39060-445: Was defeated by French armies near the city of Ulm . The French victory resulted in the capture of 20,000 Austrian soldiers and many cannons. Napoleon's army won another victory at Austerlitz on 2 December 1805. Francis was forced into negotiations with the French from 4 to 6 December 1805, which concluded with an armistice on 6 December 1805. The French victories encouraged rulers of certain imperial territories to ally themselves with
39270-416: Was a plot by their local authorities. In Germany, the dissolution was widely compared to the ancient and semi-legendary Fall of Troy and some associated the end of what they perceived to be the Roman Empire with the end times and the apocalypse . The defining characteristic of the Holy Roman Empire was the idea that the Holy Roman Emperor represented the leading monarch in Europe and that their empire
39480-415: Was a rumored candidate to the position of Holy Roman Emperor in 1740. Frederick II, and other Prussian kings, dismissed these ideas while they remained under Imperial rule, arguing that additional territory and power would be more beneficial than the Imperial title. In 1795 and again in 1803 and 1804, French representatives suggested that Prussia might convert its northern German territories into an empire, but
39690-430: Was a widespread sentiment in Germany and elsewhere which called for the revival of the Holy Roman Empire under the leadership of Francis I of Austria. At the time, there were several factors which prevented the restoration of the empire as it had been in the 18th century, notably the rise of larger, more consolidated kingdoms in Germany, such as Bavaria , Saxony and Württemberg , as well as Prussia's interest in becoming
39900-505: Was affirmed by Article X, which was added to Hungary's constitution in 1790 and described the state as a Regnum Independens . Hungary's affairs remained administered by its own institutions (King and Diet) as they had been beforehand; thus no Imperial institutions were involved in its government. The fall and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire was accelerated by French intervention in the Empire in September 1805. On 20 October 1805, an Austrian army led by General Karl Mack von Leiberich
40110-414: Was also the Elector of Hanover (formally Brunswick-Lüneburg) and Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg ; Hanover and Lauenburg were incorporated into the French satellite Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, having been occupied several times since 1801, but Britain remained at war with France and no treaty was signed recognising their annexation. His claims were later settled by the creation of the Kingdom of Hanover which
40320-434: Was controversial. Contemporary legal commentators agreed that the abdication itself was perfectly legal but that the emperor did not have the authority to dissolve the empire. As such, several of the empire's vassals refused to recognize that the empire had ended. As late as October 1806, farmers in Thuringia refused to accept the end of the empire, believing its dissolution to be a plot by the local authorities. For many of
40530-410: Was declared, which reduced the number of ecclesiastical states from 81 to only 3 and the free imperial cities from 51 to 6. This measure was aimed at replacing the old constitution of the Holy Roman Empire, but the actual consequence of the Imperial Recess, along with the French occupying the Electorate of Hanover in the same month and various Holy Roman states becoming allied with or against France,
40740-434: Was enumerated after his predecessor as king, Frederick II, not after the previous Imperial Frederick (Emperor Frederick III of the 15th century, the new Frederick would then have been Frederick IV). Both the German Empire and Austria-Hungary , the Habsburg-ruled Dual Monarchy, fell in 1918 in the aftermath of the First World War . Over the course of the centuries, the many states of the Holy Roman Empire would evolve into
40950-410: Was first allied with Napoleon during the invasion of Russia and later neutral during the first few weeks of the Sixth Coalition War . Austria and its allies emerged victorious in the war, leading to the Congress of Vienna , which reaffirmed the empire as one of the great powers of the 19th century. The Kingdom of Hungary —as Regnum Independens—was administered by its own institutions separately from
41160-411: Was forced to carry the main burden of war with Napoleonic France for almost ten years. This severely overburdened the Austrian economy, making the war greatly unpopular. Emperor Francis I therefore refused to join any further war against Napoleon for a long time. On the other hand, Francis I continued to intrigue for the possibility of revenge against France, entering into a secret military agreement with
41370-493: Was held by George IV and William IV as Kings of Hanover. Succession could only be in the male line, so on Queen Victoria 's accession to the British throne, her uncle, Ernest Augustus , succeeded as King of Hanover, thus ending the personal union with Great Britain that dated to 1714. Klemens von Metternich became Foreign Minister in 1809. He also held the post of Chancellor of State from 1821 until 1848, under both Francis I and his son Ferdinand I . The period of 1815–1848
41580-556: Was just a French translation of Landeshoheit (the quasi-sovereignty possessed by Imperial estates) and the treaty had not altered the relationship between the members and the empire. Throughout the first half of 1806, Bavaria, Baden and Württemberg attempted to steer an independent course between the demands of the empire and Napoleon. In April 1806, Napoleon sought a treaty whereby the three states would ally themselves to France in perpetuity while forswearing participation in future Reichskriege (imperial war efforts) and submitting to
41790-508: Was not necessarily associated with any one area. Throughout its long existence, the Holy Roman Empire was a central element in international relations in Europe, not only because the empire itself was often one of the most powerful on the continent but also because of the emperor himself. Because the Holy Roman Emperors were the internationally recognized heirs of the old Roman emperors and the foremost Christian rulers, they claimed (and were often granted) precedence over other rulers. Although
42000-433: Was only formulaic expressions of regret owing to the "termination of an honourable bond hallowed by time". Prussia's representative to the Reichstag, Baron Görtz, reacted with sadness, mixed with gratitude and affection for the House of Habsburg and their former role as emperors. Görtz had taken part as an electoral emissary of the Electorate of Brandenburg (Prussia's territory within the formal imperial borders) in 1792, at
42210-418: Was significantly undermined, the humiliating Treaty of Pressburg provided plenty of time to strengthen the army and economy. Moreover, the ambitious Archduke Charles and Johann Philipp von Stadion never abandoned the goal of further war with France. Archduke Charles of Austria served as the Head of the Council of War and Commander in Chief of the Austrian army. Endowed with the enlarged powers, he reformed
42420-401: Was slow to respond to the fast pace of events. Already on the 17 June, Francis had taken the decision to abdicate at the moment that seemed best for Austria. Klemens von Metternich was sent on a mission to Paris to discern Napoleon's intentions. On 22 July, Napoleon made them clear in an ultimatum demanding that Francis abdicate by 10 August. Still, as late as 2 August, Joseph Haas, the head of
42630-455: Was sometimes referenced in the titles of other later monarchs. For instance, the Savoyard Kings of Italy continued to claim the title "Prince and Perpetual Vicar of the Holy Roman Empire (in Italy)" (a title originating from a 14th-century imperial grant from Emperor Charles IV to their ancestor Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy ) until the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946. In the aftermath of Napoleon's defeats in 1814 and 1815, there
42840-434: Was that the Austrian Empire was seen as one of the great powers after 1815, but also as a reactionary force and an obstacle to national aspirations in Italy and Germany. During this time, Metternich was able to maintain an elaborate balance between Prussia, the lesser German states, and Austria in the German Confederation . Thanks to his efforts, Austria was seen as the senior partner with Prussia keeping watch over Germany as
43050-416: Was the chief architect of the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Austrian Empire was the main beneficiary from the Congress of Vienna and it established an alliance with Britain, Prussia , and Russia forming the Quadruple Alliance . The Austrian Empire also gained new territories from the Congress of Vienna, and its influence expanded to the north through the German Confederation and also into Italy. Due to
43260-454: Was the end of the empire. Taking this significant change into consideration, Holy Roman Emperor Francis II created the title Emperor of Austria for himself and his successors, thereby becoming Francis I of Austria. This new title and state were created to safeguard his dynasty's imperial status as he foresaw either the end of the Holy Roman Empire, or the eventual accession of Napoleon as Holy Roman Emperor, who had earlier that year adopted
43470-434: Was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by a pope and as such the last to be formally proclaimed as the church's protector, a role disregarded by many of his successors. By the 18th century, the contemporary views of the Holy Roman Empire were far from universally positive. There was a widespread idea that the empire was "sick" in some capacity, for instance the bookseller and publisher Johann Heinrich Zedler mentions
43680-399: Was the one true continuation of the Roman Empire of Antiquity , through proclamation by the popes in Rome . It was the firm belief of its emperors that they were the sole genuine emperors in Europe and although they had formally recognized the sultans of Ottoman Empire as emperors in 1606 and the rulers of Russia as emperors in 1721, these recognitions were conditional on the fact that
43890-408: Was the only proper system of government. This notion influenced his anti-revolutionary policy to ensure the continuation of the Habsburg monarchy in Europe. Metternich was a practitioner of balance-of-power diplomacy. His foreign policy aimed to maintain international political equilibrium to preserve the Habsburgs' power and influence in international affairs. Following the Napoleonic Wars , Metternich
44100-414: Was thus entitled to award himself with any dignities he wished. The title "Emperor of Austria" was meant to associate with all of Francis II's personal domains (not just Austria, but also lands such as Bohemia and Hungary ), regardless of their current position within or outside the Holy Roman Empire. "Austria" in this sense referred to the dynasty (often officially called the "House of Austria" instead of
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