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23-625: According to its colophon, it was written complete with punctuation by Moses ben Asher in Tiberias "at the end of the year 827 after the destruction of the second temple " (this corresponds to the year 895 CE, during the reign of Al-Mu'tadid ). It was given as a present to the Karaite community in Jerusalem , and taken as booty by the Crusaders in 1099. Later it was redeemed and came into

46-563: A Hebrew text written in ktiv haser is the Torah , read in synagogues (simply called the Torah reading ). For assistance readers often use a Tikkun , a book in which the text of the Torah appears in two side-by-side versions, one identical to the text which appears in the Torah, and one with niqqud and cantillation . Because of the difficulty of reading unvowelled text, the Va'ad ha-lashon introduced

69-712: A standard layout. With this layout, niqqud can be typed without pressing the Caps Lock key. Ktiv hasar niqqud Ktiv hasar niqqud ( Hebrew pronunciation: [ktiv χaˈsaʁ niˈkud] ; Hebrew : כתיב חסר ניקוד , literally "spelling lacking niqqud"), colloquially known as ktiv maleh ( IPA: [ktiv maˈle] ; כתיב מלא , literally "full spelling"), are the rules for writing Hebrew without vowel points (niqqud) , often replacing them with matres lectionis ( ו ‎ and י ‎). To avoid confusion, consonantal ו ‎ ( [ v ] ) and י ‎ ( [ j ] ) are doubled in

92-723: A system of spelling without niqqud, known in Hebrew as ktiv maleh ( כְּתִיב מָלֵא , literally "full spelling") had developed before the introduction of niqqud . This was formally standardised in the Rules for Spelling without Niqqud ( כְּלָלֵי הַכְּתִיב חֲסַר הַנִּקּוּד ) enacted by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in 1996, and updated in 2017. Nevertheless, niqqud is still used occasionally in texts to prevent ambiguity and mispronunciation of specific words. One reason for

115-580: Is a system of diacritical signs used to represent vowels or distinguish between alternative pronunciations of letters of the Hebrew alphabet . Several such diacritical systems were developed in the Early Middle Ages . The most widespread system, and the only one still used to a significant degree today, was created by the Masoretes of Tiberias in the second half of the first millennium AD in

138-502: Is often pronounced fost instead of fóset by many Israelis. This table uses the consonant letters ב ‎ , ח ‎ or ש ‎ , where appropriate, to demonstrate where the niqqud is placed in relation to the consonant it is pronounced after. Any other letters shown are actually part of the vowel. Note that there is some variation among different traditions in exactly how some vowel points are pronounced. The table below shows how most Israelis would pronounce them, but

161-430: Is writing whose consonants match those generally used in voweled text, but without the actual niqqud. For example, the words שֻׁלְחָן and דִּבֵּר written in ktiv haser are שלחן and דבר . In vowelled text, the niqqud indicate the correct vowels , but when the niqqud is missing, the text is difficult to read, and the reader must make use of the context of each word to know the correct reading. A typical example of

184-497: The Land of Israel (see Masoretic Text , Tiberian Hebrew ). Text written with niqqud is called ktiv menuqad . Niqqud marks are small compared to the letters, so they can be added without retranscribing texts whose writers did not anticipate them. In modern Israeli orthography, niqqud is mainly used in specialised texts such as dictionaries, poetry, or texts for children or new immigrants to Israel. For purposes of disambiguation,

207-523: The World Wide Web , or by methods integrated into particular operating systems. In GTK+ Linux systems, niqqud can be entered by holding down AltGR and pressing the same keys as for Windows, above, or by pressing ctrl+shift+u followed by the appropriate 4 digit Unicode. Using the Hebrew keyboard layout in macOS , the typist can enter niqqud by pressing the Option key together with a number on

230-603: The masoretic tradition, Codex Cairensis seems to be closer to ben Naphtali than to Aaron ben Moses ben Asher . While some scholars consider this to be an argument against its authenticity, Moshe Goshen-Gottstein assumed that ben Naphtali stuck more faithfully to the system of Moses ben Asher than the latter's own son, Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, who corrected the Aleppo Codex and added its punctuation. More recently, further doubts on its authenticity have been cast by radiocarbon dating and other scientific techniques. It

253-459: The newspapers and books published in Hebrew are written in ktiv male. Additionally, it is common for children's books or texts for those with special needs to contain niqqud, but ktiv haser without niqqud is rare. Despite the Academy's standardization of the rules for ktiv male, there is a substantial lack of unity in writing, partly because of a lack of grammatical knowledge, partly because of

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276-710: The Rules for the Spelling-Without-Niqqud ( כללי הכתיב חסר הניקוד ), which in reality dictates ktiv male. This system mostly involved the addition of ו ‎ and י ‎ to mark the different vowels. Later on, these rules were adopted by the Academy of the Hebrew Language , which continued to revise them, and they were mostly accepted by the public, mainly for official writing. Ktiv haser became obsolete in Modern Hebrew, and ktiv male has already been dominant for decades in unvowelled texts: all of

299-430: The classic Ashkenazi pronunciation, for example, differs in several respects. Note concerning IPA : the transcription symbols are linked to the articles about the sounds they represent. The diacritic  ˘  ( breve ) indicates a short vowel ; the triangular colon symbol  ː  indicates that the vowel is long . Both consonants and niqqud can be typed from virtual graphical keyboards available on

322-498: The codex (text and masorahs) was published by a team of Spanish scholars. See F. Pérez Castro et alia, El Códice de Profetas de El Cairo, Textos y Estudios "Cardenal Cisneros" , CSIC, 8 vols., Madrid 1979-92. Niqqud In Hebrew orthography , niqqud or nikud ( Hebrew : נִקּוּד , Modern :   nikúd , Tiberian :   niqqūḏ , "dotting, pointing" or Hebrew : נְקֻדּוֹת , Modern :   nekudót , Tiberian :   nəquddōṯ , "dots")

345-409: The historical layers of the language, and partly because of a number of linguistic categories in which the Academy's decisions are not popular. As a result, book publishers and newspaper editors make their own judgments. As is the norm for linguistic rules, the rules for spelling without niqqud are not entirely static. Changes occur from time to time, based on amassed experience. For example, originally

368-531: The idea of changing the basics of niqqud and fitting them to the current pronunciation – with the result that in practice niqqud is increasingly going out of use. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann , the lack of niqqud in what he calls "Israeli" (Modern Hebrew) often results in "mispronunciations". For example, the Israeli lexical item מתאבנים is often pronounced as mitabním (literally "becoming fossilized (masculine plural)") instead of metaavním "appetizers",

391-600: The latter deriving from תאבון teavón "appetite", the former deriving from אבן éven "stone". Another example is the toponym מעלה אדומים , which is often pronounced as maalé edomím instead of maalé adumím , the latter appearing in the Hebrew Bible (Joshua 15:7 and 18:17). The hypercorrect yotvetá is used instead of yotváta for the toponym יטבתה , mentioned in Deuteronomy 10:7. The surname of American actress Farrah Fawcett ( פארה   פוסט )

414-473: The lesser use of niqqud is that it no longer reflects the current pronunciation. In modern Hebrew , tzere is pronounced the same as segol , although they were distinct in Tiberian Hebrew , and pataḥ the same as qamatz . To the younger generation of native Hebrew speakers, these distinctions seem arbitrary and meaningless; on the other hand, Hebrew language purists have rejected out of hand

437-2108: The middle of words. In general use, niqqud are seldom used, except in specialized texts such as dictionaries, poetry, or texts for children or for new immigrants. From a Hebrew translation of "The Raven" by Edgar Allan Poe (translated by Eliyahu Tsifer): וילון של משי ארגמן, ספק רשרוש, מסך מוכמן, הפחידוני, ביעתוני, חששות אימה וסלוד, פעמי לבי מקבת, במאוץ וגם בשבת, האושפיז בשוט ושבט, את דלתי הזיז במנוד, את דלתי הזיז הניע, קטב לשכתי ישוד, אלמוני הוא האורח, אלמוני הוא ולא עוד! שלוותי פרשה כנפיים, היסוסיי אפסו אפיים, אדון וגברת, בכנות אפציר אסגוד, כן עובדה היא, שעת גלוש, וברוך ידך תקוש, מדורי אזי נלוש, עת הנדת שדוד, לרווחה דלתי פרשתי, כי נועדתי לשרוד, ושור! הבט! רק שחור, לא עוד! ‎ וִילוֹן שֶׁל מֶשִׁי אַרְגָּמָן, סָפֵק רִשְׁרוּשׁ, מָסָךְ מֻכְמָן, הִפְחִידֻנִּי, בִּעֲתֻנִי, חֲשָׁשוֹת אֵימָה וּסְלוֹד, פַּעֲמֵי לִבִּי מַקֶּבֶת, בִּמְאוֹץ וְגַם בְּשֶׁבֶת, הָאֻשְׁפִּיז בְּשׁוֹט וָשֵׁבֶט, אֶת דַּלְתִּי הֵזִיז בִּמְנֹד, אֶת דַלְתִּי הֵזִיז הֵנִיעַ, קֶטֶב לִשְׁכַּתִּי יָשׁוֹד, אַלְמוֹנִי הוּא הָאוֹרֵחַ, אַלְמוֹנִי הוּא וְלֹא עוֹד! שַׁלְוַתִּי פַּרְשָׂה כְּנָפַיִם, הִסּוּסַי אָפְסוּ אַפַּיִם, אָדוֹן וּגְבֶרֶת, בְּכֵנוּת אָפְצִיר אֶסְגֹּד, כֵּן עֻבְדָּה הִיא, שְׁעַת גְּלֹש, וּבְרוֹךְ יָדְךָ תַּקֹּשׁ, מְדוֹרִי אֲזַי נַלֹּשׁ, עֵת הֵנַדְתָּ שָׁדֹד, לִרְוָחָה דַּלְתִּי פָּרַשְׂתִּי, כִּי נוֹעַדְתִּי לִשְׂרֹד, וְשּׁוּר! הַבֵּט! רַק שְׁחוֹר, לֹא עוֹד! ‎ Ktiv haser ( כתיב חסר )

460-753: The possession of the Karaite community in Cairo . When the Karaite Jews left Egypt, they deposited the codex in 1983 at Hebrew University of Jerusalem , where it is kept in a secure room on the floor below the Hebrew Manuscript collection. The Codex was brought back to Jerusalem by a committee of six persons. Although according to its colophon the codex was written by a member of the Ben Asher family, Lazar Lipschütz and others observed that, within

483-429: The rules for spelling without niqqud dictated that אשה isha ("woman") should be written without a yod י ‎ (to distinguish it from אישה ishah – "her husband"), but currently the exception has been removed, and now, the Academy prefers אישה . The last substantial change to the rules for spelling without niqqud was made in 1993 updated in 1996. The following is the summary of the current rules: These are

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506-513: The top row of the keyboard. Other combinations such as sofit and hataf can also be entered by pressing either the Shift key and a number, or by pressing the Shift key, Option key, and a number at the same time. Notes: SIL International have developed another standard, which is based on Tiro, but adds the Niqqud along the home keys. Linux comes with "Israel — Biblical Hebrew (Tiro)" as

529-570: Was stated, after scientific investigation, that the scribe must have been a different person from the vocaliser , and the manuscript must be dated to the 11th century, not the 9th. Umberto Cassuto relied heavily on this codex when producing his edition of the Masoretic Text , which means that in the Prophets his edition is closer to the ben Naphtali tradition than in the Torah or Writings. Between 1979 and 1992 an editio princeps of

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