In religion , a prophet or prophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with a divine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from the supernatural source to other people. The message that the prophet conveys is called a prophecy .
184-480: Prophethood has existed in many cultures and religions throughout history, including Mesopotamian religion , Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Christianity , Manichaeism , Islam , the Baháʼí Faith , and Thelema . The English word prophet is the transliteration of a compound Greek word derived from pro (before/toward) and phesein (to tell); thus, a προφήτης ( prophḗtēs ) is someone who conveys messages from
368-412: A dental consonant ) should have Avestan zarat- or zarat̰- as a development from it. Why this is not so for zaraθuštra has not yet been determined. Notwithstanding the phonetic irregularity, that Avestan zaraθuštra with its -θ- was linguistically an actual form is shown by later attestations reflecting the same basis. All present-day Iranian-language variants of his name derive from
552-595: A sar being 3,600 years, this would indicate that at least some of the Mesopotamians believed that the Earth would only last 518,400 years. Berossus does not report what was thought to follow this event, however. As with most dead religions, many aspects of the common practices and intricacies of the doctrine have been lost and forgotten over time. However, much of the information and knowledge has survived, and great work has been done by historians and scientists, with
736-493: A Prophet and describe the expressions of the all-good Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman as merely referring to the coexistence of forces of good and evil enabling humans to exercise free will. Manichaeism considered Zoroaster to be a figure in a line of prophets of which Mani (216–276) was the culmination. Zoroaster's ethical dualism is—to an extent—incorporated in Manichaeism's doctrine which, unlike Mani's thoughts, viewed
920-500: A branch brought by Zoroaster from Paradise and to have stood in today's Kashmar in northeastern Iran and to have been planted by Zoroaster in honor of the conversion of King Vishtaspa to Zoroastrianism. According to the Iranian physicist and historian Zakariya al-Qazwini , King Vishtaspa had been a patron of Zoroaster who planted the tree himself. In his ʿAjā'ib al-makhlūqāt wa gharā'ib al-mawjūdāt ('The Wonders of Creatures and
1104-564: A crucial role in shaping early religious thought and practices, paving the way for the structured prophetic tradition that emerged with Zoroaster and subsequent religious traditions. Zoroastrianism holds a significant position in shaping the concept of prophets and prophecy. Founded by the revered figure Zoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Persia around the 6th century BCE, Zoroastrianism introduced fundamental ideas that profoundly influenced subsequent religious and philosophical traditions, particularly in its portrayal of prophetic figures. At
1288-410: A curse upon Zoroaster, causing him to suffer Leprosy , and exiling him. Zoroaster later moved to a place of modern-day Azerbaijan which ruled by Bashtaasib ( Vishtaspa ), governor of Nebuchadnezzar, and spread his teaching of Zoroastrianism there. Bashtaasib then followed his teaching, forces the inhabitants of Persia to convert to Zoroastrianism and killed those who refused. Ibn Kathir has quoted
1472-494: A date around 1000 BC to be the most likely, others still consider a range of dates between 1500 and 500 BC to be possible. Classical scholarship in the 6th to 4th century BC believed he existed 6,000 years before Xerxes I 's invasion of Greece in 480 BC ( Xanthus , Eudoxus , Aristotle , Hermippus ), which is a possible misunderstanding of the Zoroastrian four cycles of 3,000 years (i.e. 12,000 years). This belief
1656-399: A divine act of creation, and the gods were believed to be the source of life, and held power over sickness and health, as well as the destinies of men. Personal names show that each child was considered a gift from divinity. Man was believed to have been created to serve the gods, or perhaps wait on them: the god is lord ( belu ) and man is servant or slave ( ardu ), and was to fear ( puluhtu )
1840-415: A faithful community, and married three times. His first two wives bore him three sons, Isat Vâstra, Urvatat Nara, and Hvare Chithra, and three daughters, Freni, Thriti, and Pouruchista. His third wife, Hvōvi, was childless. Zoroaster died when he was 77 years and 40 days old. There are conflicting traditions on Zoroaster's manner of death. The most common is that he was murdered by a karapan (priest of
2024-600: A fixed period and the historicization surrounding him may be a part of a trend from before the 10th century AD that historicizes legends and myths. Zoroaster's name in his native language, Avestan , was probably Zaraθuštra . His translated name, "Zoroaster", derives from a later (5th century BC) Greek transcription, Zōroastrēs ( Ζωροάστρης ), as used in Xanthus 's Lydiaca (Fragment 32) and in Plato 's First Alcibiades (122a1). This form appears subsequently in
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#17327658816052208-461: A giant altar. Other theories treat the tower as an image of the cosmic mountain where a dying and rising god "lay buried." Some temples, such as the temple of Enki in Eridu contained a holy tree ( kiskanu ) in a holy grove, which was the central point of various rites performed by the king, who functioned as a "master gardener." Mesopotamian temples were originally built to serve as dwelling places for
2392-450: A hereditary ruler, and an eponym . The ruler presided over the assembly and carried out its decisions. He was not referred to with the usual Akkadian term for "king", šarrum ; that was instead reserved for the city's patron deity Ashur , of whom the ruler was the high priest . The ruler himself was only designated as "steward of Assur" ( iššiak Assur ), where the term for steward is a borrowing from Sumerian ensí . The third centre of power
2576-455: A late date for Zoroaster's life have fallen out of vogue with some Zoroastian communities, who see the prospect of their faith having more ancient roots than previously thought as a welcome development. The birthplace of Zoroaster is also unknown, and the language of the Gathas is not similar to the proposed north-western and north-eastern regional dialects of Persia. It is also suggested that he
2760-432: A late dating to the 7th and 6th centuries BC, based on the indigenous Zoroastrian tradition, and an early dating, which places his life more generally in the 15th to 9th centuries BC. Some scholars propose a period between 7th and 6th century BC, for example, c. 650–600 BC or 559–522 BC. The latest possible date is the mid 6th century BC, at the time of Achaemenid Empire's Darius I , or his predecessor Cyrus
2944-525: A linen belt so that it gets ruined to illustrate how God intends to ruin Judah's pride. Likewise, Jeremiah buys a clay jar and smashes it in the Valley of Ben Hinnom in front of elders and priests to illustrate that God will smash the nation of Judah and the city of Judah beyond repair. God instructs Jeremiah to make a yoke from wood and leather straps and to put it on his own neck to demonstrate how God will put
3128-428: A message. The seer-priests were usually attached to a local shrine or temple, such as Shiloh , and initiated others into that priesthood, acting as a mystical craft-guild with apprentices and recruitment. Canonical prophets were not organised this way. Jewish tradition - unlike Christian and Islamic practice - does not regard Daniel as a prophet. A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as
3312-648: A number of men as " Prophets of Islam " ( Arabic : نبي nabī ; pl. أنبياء anbiyāʾ ). Muslims believe such individuals were assigned a special mission by God to guide humanity. Besides Muhammad , this includes prophets such as Abraham ( Ibrāhīm ) , Moses ( Mūsā ) and Jesus ( ʿĪsā ) . Although only twenty-five prophets are mentioned by name in the Quran , a hadith (no. 21257 in Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal ) mentions that there were (more or less) 124,000 prophets in total throughout history. Other traditions place
3496-438: A precedent for future prophets, shaping how societies perceive and interact with visionary figures throughout history. While other ancient civilizations may have had individuals who served similar functions, Zoroastrianism's systematic approach to prophecy and its enduring influence on subsequent religious thought solidified its place in history as a foundational example of prophetic tradition, enriching humanity's understanding of
3680-414: A prophet established a template for future religious leaders and visionaries. He articulated monotheistic principles, ethical dualism , and the idea of a cosmic battle between good and evil, influencing not only the religious landscape of ancient Persia but also later traditions such as Judaism , Christianity , Islam , and Thelema . The legacy of Zoroastrianism in shaping the understanding of prophets
3864-409: A representative of the city-state's patron deity. The functions of a lugal would include certain ceremonial and cultic activities, arbitration in border disputes, and military defence against external enemies. The ensis of Lagash would sometimes refer to the city's patron deity, Ningirsu , as their lugal ("master"). All of the above is connected to the possibly priestly or sacral character of
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#17327658816054048-409: A stable for the god's chariot and draft animals. Generally, the god's well-being was maintained through service, or work ( dullu ). The image was dressed and served banquets twice a day. It is not known how the god was thought to consume the food, but a curtain was drawn before the table while he or she "ate", just as the king himself was not allowed to be seen by the masses while he ate. Occasionally,
4232-420: A trait found in many other polytheistic religions. The historian J. Bottéro was of the opinion that the gods were not viewed mystically , but were instead seen as high-up masters who had to be obeyed and feared, as opposed to loved and adored. Nonetheless, many Mesopotamians, of all classes, often had names that were devoted to a certain deity; this practice appeared to have begun in the third millennium BC among
4416-590: A vision of the seven Amesha Spenta , and his teachings were collected in the Gathas and the Avesta . Eventually, at the age of about 42, Zoroaster received the patronage of queen Hutaosa and a ruler named Vishtaspa , an early adherent of Zoroastrianism (possibly from Bactria according to the Shahnameh ). According to the tradition, he lived for many years after Vishtaspa's conversion, managed to establish
4600-531: A voice , "voice of God"). In Christianity , a prophet (or seer) is one inspired by God through the Holy Spirit to deliver a message. This includes Jewish prophets active before the church began and the prophets active in the Christian church. Some Christian denominations limit a prophet's message to words intended only for active members of a congregation, excluding social or political messages. However,
4784-586: A warning against those who prophesy events which do not come to pass and says they should be put to death. Elsewhere a false prophet may be someone who is purposely trying to deceive, is delusional, under the influence of Satan or is speaking from his own spirit. Six of the Minor Prophets are commemorated in December. Each encouraged people to return to God, to repent of past sins, and to recognize God's presence even in their difficulties. "Jesus Christ
4968-632: A word against the Son of Man, it shall be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come."). Cessationists believe that these gifts were given only in New Testament times and that they ceased after the last apostle died. The last prophet of the Old Covenant before the arrival of Jesus is John
5152-405: Is aša ), creation (that is aša ), existence (that is aša ), and as the condition for free will. The purpose of humankind, like that of all other creation, is to sustain and align itself to aša . For humankind, this occurs through active ethical participation in life, ritual, and the exercise of constructive/good thoughts, words, and deeds. Elements of Zoroastrian philosophy entered
5336-608: Is another example. According to I Samuel 9:9, the old name for navi is ro'eh , רֹאֶה, which literally means "seer". That could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. L. C. Allen (1971) comments that in the First Temple Era, there were essentially seer-priests belonging to a guild, who performed divination , rituals, and sacrifices, and were scribes; and beside these were canonical prophets, who did none of these things (and condemned divination), but came to deliver
5520-533: Is believed to be the pinnacle and purpose of creation. The enunciators (sing. natiq ) who are the Prophets and the Imams in their respective times, are the highest hierarch ( hadd ). The enunciators ( natiqs ) signal the beginning of a new age ( dawr ) in humankind, whereas the Imams unveil and present the esoteric ( batin ) meaning of the revelation to the people. These individuals are both known as
5704-574: Is depicted as a system which, according to the author, continued to hold sway in the first century AD, eventually to be utterly annihilated (17:5; 18:9). According to some interpretations, this is believed to refer to the Roman Empire , but according to other interpretations, this system remains extant in the world until the Second Coming . Zoroaster Zarathushtra Spitama , more commonly known as Zoroaster or Zarathustra ,
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5888-602: Is devoted to the Hebrew prophets. The meaning of navi is perhaps described in Deuteronomy 18:18, where God said, "...and I will put My words in his mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him." Thus, a navi was thought to be the "mouth" of God. A Jewish tradition was that the root nun - bet - alef ("navi") is based on the two-letter root nun-bet which denotes hollowness or openness; to receive transcendental wisdom, one must make oneself "open". Before
6072-429: Is far-reaching; his word is sublime and holy. His decisions are unalterable; he decides fate forever! His eyes scrutinize the entire world!" A prayer to the god Enlil. Each Mesopotamian city was home to a deity, and each of the prominent deities was the patron of a city, and all known temples were located in cities, though there may have been shrines in the suburbs. The temple itself was constructed of mud brick in
6256-697: Is primarily proposed on linguistic similarities between the Old Avestan language of the Zoroastrian Gathas and the Sanskrit of the Rigveda ( c. 1700 –1100 BC), a collection of early Vedic hymns. Both texts are considered to have a common archaic Indo-Iranian origin. The Gathas portray an ancient Stone - Bronze Age bipartite society of warrior-herdsmen and priests (compared to Bronze tripartite society ; some conjecture that it depicts
6440-540: Is profound. Zoroaster's direct communication with the divine, his role as a mediator between humanity and the divine will, and his teachings about moral righteousness laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood as it evolved in subsequent religious traditions. Influence from Zoroastrian thought can be seen in the characterization of prophets as individuals chosen by a single supreme deity to convey divine messages, guide communities, and uphold moral principles. The structured prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster set
6624-718: Is recorded by Diogenes Laërtius , and variant readings could place it 600 years before Xerxes I, somewhere before 1000 BC. However, Diogenes also mentions Hermodorus 's belief that Zoroaster lived 5,000 years before the Trojan War , which would mean he lived around 6200 BC. The 10th-century Suda provides a date of 500 years before the Trojan War. Pliny the Elder cited Eudoxus which placed his death 6,000 years before Plato, c. 6300 BC . Other pseudo-historical constructions are those of Aristoxenus who recorded Zaratas
6808-478: Is that a prophet is required to demonstrate God's law through his actions, character, and behavior without necessarily calling people to follow him, while a prophetic messenger is required to pronounce God's law (i.e. revelation) and call his people to submit and follow him. Muhammad is distinguished from the rest of the prophetic messengers and prophets in that God commissioned him to be the prophetic messenger to all of humankind. Many of these prophets are also found in
6992-541: Is the current Prophet and President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . Baptist preacher William Miller is credited with beginning the mid-19th century North American religious movement now known as Adventism . He announced a Second Coming , resulting in the Great Disappointment . The Seventh-day Adventist Church , which was established in 1863, believes that Ellen G. White , one of
7176-587: Is the one whom the Father anointed with the Holy Spirit and established as priest, prophet, and king. The whole People of God participates in these three offices of Christ and bears the responsibilities for mission and service that flow from them." The laity act prophetically when they speak the truth, and live the Gospel by example before their families, neighbors, and co-workers. The Old Testament prophets defended
7360-472: Is the original form, it may mean 'with old/aging camels', related to Avestic zarant- ( cf. Pashto zōṛ and Ossetian zœrond , 'old'; Middle Persian zāl , 'old'): The interpretation of the -θ- ( /θ/ ) in the Avestan zaraθuštra was for a time itself subjected to heated debate because the -θ- is an irregular development: as a rule, *zarat- (a first element that ends in
7544-456: Is uncertain. His life is traditionally dated to sometime around the 7th and 6th centuries BC, making him a contemporary of Cyrus the Great , though most scholars, using linguistic and socio-cultural evidence, suggest a dating to somewhere in the second millennium BC. Zoroastrianism eventually became Iran's most prominent religion from around the 6th century BC, enjoying official sanction during
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7728-730: The Zurwaniya and the Zaradushtiya , among which Al-Shahrastani asserts that only the last of the three were properly followers of Zoroaster. As regards the recognition of a prophet, Zoroaster has said: "They ask you as to how should they recognize a prophet and believe him to be true in what he says; tell them what he knows the others do not, and he shall tell you even what lies hidden in your nature; he shall be able to tell you whatever you ask him and he shall perform such things which others cannot perform." (Namah Shat Vakhshur Zartust, .5–7. 50–54) The Ahmadiyya Community views Zoroaster as
7912-543: The 9th century BC or before was suggested by Silk Road Seattle, using its own interpretations of Victor H. Mair 's writings on the topic. Mair himself guessed that Zoroaster could have been born in the 2nd millennium BC. Almut Hintze , the British Library , and the European Research Council have dated Zoroaster to roughly 3,500 years ago, in the 2nd millennium BC. Traditions favoring
8096-465: The Abrahamic religions , including Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . He spoke an Eastern Iranian language , named Avestan by scholars after the corpus of Zoroastrian religious texts written in that language . Based on this, it is tentative to place his homeland somewhere in the eastern regions of Greater Iran (perhaps in modern-day Afghanistan or Tajikistan ), but his exact birthplace
8280-568: The Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam believe that Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad was a prophet of God , who is said to be a fulfillment of the various Islamic prophecies regarding the second advent of Jesus ( ʿĪsā ) before the end of time . Ahmadi thought emphasizes the belief that Islam is the final dispensation for humanity as revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring it to its true intent and pristine form, which had been lost through
8464-620: The Bahá'í Faith as a " Manifestation of God ", one of a line of prophets who have progressively revealed the Word of God to a gradually maturing humanity. Zoroaster thus shares an exalted station with Abraham , Moses , Krishna , Jesus , Muhammad , the Báb , and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh . Shoghi Effendi , the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, saw Bahá'u'lláh as
8648-614: The Bible has several occasions in which prophets were called to deliver social or political messages. The reception of a message is termed revelation and the delivery of the message is termed prophecy. The term "prophet" applies to those who receive public or private revelation . Public revelation, in Catholicism, is part of the Deposit of faith , the revelation of which was completed by Jesus; whereas private revelation does not add to
8832-514: The Chaldeaean to have taught Pythagoras in Babylon , or lived at the time of mythological Ninus and Semiramis . According to Pliny the Elder, there were two Zoroasters. The first lived thousands of years ago, while the second accompanied Xerxes I in the invasion of Greece in 480 BC. Some scholars propose that the chronological calculation for Zoroaster was developed by Persian magi in
9016-534: The Church of Christ in 1830, is considered a prophet by members of the Latter Day Saint movement , of which the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) is the largest denomination. Additionally, many churches within the movement believe in a succession of modern prophets (accepted by Latter Day Saints as " prophets, seers, and revelators ") since the time of Joseph Smith. Russell M. Nelson
9200-535: The Fatimid Ismaili Imams explained that throughout history there have been six enunciators ( natiqs ) who brought the exoteric ( zahir ) revelation to humans, namely: Adam , Noah , Abraham , Moses , Jesus and Muhammad . They speak of a seventh enunciator ( natiq ), the Resurrector (Qa’im), who will unveil the esoteric ( batin ) meaning of all the previous revelations. He
9384-544: The Hebrew Bible . In the Enuma Elish (ca. 12th century BC), the god Marduk kills Tiamat , the mother of the gods, and, from the two halves of her carcass, constructs the heavens and the earth to shape the modern observable cosmos. A document from a similar period stated that the heavens and the earth can each be divided into three layers. The gods dwell in the higher levels of heaven, with the stars being fixed into
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#17327658816059568-509: The Semitic root n-b-y or nbʾ . It is cognate with Classical Syriac : ܢܒܝܐ , romanized: nəḇiyyā , Arabic : نبي , romanized : nabiyy , and Hebrew : נביא , romanized : nāḇi , all meaning 'prophet'. In Hebrew , the word נָבִיא ( nāvî ), "spokesperson", traditionally translates as "prophet". The second subdivision of the Tanakh , Nevi'im ,
9752-589: The Sumerian language , the gods were referred to as dingir , while in the Akkadian language they were known as ilu and it seems that there was syncretism between the gods worshipped by the two groups, adopting one another's deities. The Mesopotamian gods bore many similarities with humans, and were anthropomorphic , thereby having humanoid form. Similarly, they often acted like humans, requiring food and drink, as well as drinking alcohol and subsequently suffering
9936-661: The Yaz culture ), and that it is thus implausible that the Gathas and Rigveda could have been composed more than a few centuries apart. These scholars suggest that Zoroaster lived in an isolated tribe or composed the Gathas before the 1200–1000 BC migration by the Iranians from the steppe to the Iranian Plateau . The shortfall of the argument is the vague comparison, and the archaic language of Gathas does not necessarily indicate time difference. Another possible date from
10120-481: The calendar . They created the first city-states such as Uruk , Ur , Lagash , Isin , Kish , Umma , Eridu , Adab , Akshak , Sippar , Nippur and Larsa , each of them ruled by an ensí . The Sumerians remained largely dominant in this synthesised culture, however, until the rise of the Akkadian Empire under Sargon of Akkad circa 2335 BC, which united all of Mesopotamia under one ruler. There
10304-640: The creation myth , the Garden of Eden , the flood myth , the Tower of Babel , figures such as Nimrod and Lilith and the Book of Esther . It has also inspired various contemporary neo-pagan groups. In the New Testament Book of Revelation , Babylonian religion is associated with religious apostasy of the lowest order, the archetype of a political/religious system heavily tied to global commerce, and it
10488-533: The early Muslim community . Ahmadis thus view themselves as leading the propagation and renaissance of Islam. Mesopotamian religion Mesopotamian religion refers to the religious beliefs (concerning the gods, creation and the cosmos , the origin of man, and so forth) and practices of the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia , particularly Sumer , Akkad , Assyria and Babylonia between circa 6000 BC and 400 AD. The religious development of Mesopotamia and Mesopotamian culture in general, especially in
10672-425: The old religion ) named Brādrēs, while performing at an altar. The Dēnkart , and the epic Shahnameh , ascribe his death to a Turanian soldier named Baraturish, potentially a spin on the same figure, while other traditions combine both accounts or hold that he died of old age . The Cypress of Kashmar is a mythical cypress tree of legendary beauty and gargantuan dimensions. It is said to have sprung from
10856-588: The struggle between a good , spiritual world of light , and an evil , material world of darkness . Through an ongoing process that takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light, whence it came. Mani's teaching was intended to "combine", succeed, and surpass the teachings of Christianity , Zoroastrianism , Buddhism , Marcionism , Hellenistic and Rabbinic Judaism , Gnostic movements , Ancient Greek religion , Babylonian and other Mesopotamian religions , and mystery cults . It reveres Mani as
11040-425: The "conscious everyday world into the trance world of spiritual ecstasy." Mesopotamians believed in an afterlife that took place in a region below the surface of the earth inhabited by living humans. This was the ancient Mesopotamian underworld , known by many names including Arallû , Ganzer or Irkallu ("Great Below"). It was believed everyone went to this region after death, irrespective of social status or
11224-612: The (Parthian or) Middle Persian form, which the Armenians took over ( Zaradušt or the like), was merely metathesized to pre-Arm . *Zuradašt ". There is no consensus on the dating of Zoroaster. The Avesta gives no direct information about it, while historical sources are conflicting. Some scholars base their date reconstruction on the Proto-Indo-Iranian language and Proto-Indo-Iranian religion , while others use internal evidence. While many scholars today consider
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#173276588160511408-637: The 1980s often included prophetic predictions regarding the future of the world as well as of the local areas they occurred in. Prophetic movements in particular can be traced throughout the Christian Church's history, expressing themselves in (for example) Montanism , Novatianism , Donatism , Franciscanism , Anabaptism , Camisard enthusiasm, Puritanism , Quakerism , Quietism , Lutheranism and Radical Pietism . Modern Pentecostals and Charismatics, members of movements which together comprised approximately 584 million people as of 2011, believe in
11592-577: The 2nd and 1st millennia BC, introduced greater emphasis on personal religion and structured the gods into a monarchical hierarchy, with the national god being the head of the pantheon. Mesopotamian religion finally declined with the spread of Iranian religions during the Achaemenid Empire and with the Christianization of Mesopotamia. The very earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious thought are believed to have developed in
11776-592: The 4th century AD. The traditional Zoroastrian date originates in the period immediately following Alexander the Great 's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire in 330 BC. The Seleucid rulers who gained power following Alexander's death instituted an "Age of Alexander" as the new calendrical epoch. This did not appeal to the Zoroastrian priesthood who then attempted to establish an "Age of Zoroaster". To do so, they needed to establish when Zoroaster had lived, which they accomplished by (erroneously, according to Mary Boyce some even identified Cyrus with Vishtaspa) counting back
11960-539: The 4th century BC, and as the early Greeks learned about him from the Achaemenids, this indicates they did not regard him as a contemporary of Cyrus the Great, but as a remote figure. Some later pseudo-historical and Zoroastrian sources (the Bundahishn , which references a date "258 years before Alexander") place Zoroaster in the 6th century BC, which coincided with the accounts by Ammianus Marcellinus from
12144-493: The Adapa myth resignedly relate that, due to a blunder, all men must die and that true everlasting life is the sole property of the gods. There are no known Mesopotamian tales about the end of the world , although it has been speculated that they believed that this would eventually occur. This is largely because Berossus wrote that the Mesopotamians believed the world to last "twelve times twelve sars " in his Babyloniaca ; with
12328-494: The Akkadian speakers and their culture. Akkadian speakers are believed to have entered the region at some point between 3500 BC and 3000 BC, with Akkadian names first appearing in the regnal lists of these states c. 29th century BC. The Sumerians were advanced: as well as inventing writing, they developed early forms of mathematics , early wheeled vehicles/ chariots , astronomy , astrology , written code of law , organised medicine , advanced agriculture and architecture , and
12512-489: The Avestan form of the name. However, the modern Iranologist Rüdiger Schmitt rejects Andreas's assumption, and states that the older form which started with *zur- was just influenced by Armenian zur ('wrong, unjust, idle'), which therefore means that "the name must have been reinterpreted in an anti-Zoroastrian sense by the Armenian Christians". Furthermore, Schmitt adds: "it cannot be excluded, that
12696-511: The Baptist . New Testament passages that explicitly discuss prophets existing after the death and resurrection of Christ include Revelation 11:10, Matthew 10:40–41 and 23:34, John 13:20 and 15:20 and Acts 11:25–30, 13:1 and 15:32. The Didache gives extensive instruction in how to distinguish between true and false prophets, as well as commands regarding tithes to prophets in the church. Irenaeus , wrote of 2nd-century believers with
12880-827: The Book" cannot apply in light of the Zoroastrian assertion that their books were destroyed by Alexander. Citing the authority of the 8th-century al-Kalbi , the 9th- and 10th-century Sunni historian al-Tabari (I, 648) reports that Zaradusht bin Isfiman (an Arabic adaptation of "Zarathushtra Spitama") was an inhabitant of Israel and a servant of one of the disciples of the prophet Jeremiah . According to this tale, Zaradusht defrauded his master, who cursed him, causing him to become leprous (cf. Elisha 's servant Gehazi in Jewish scripture). According to Ibn Kathir , Zoroaster came into conflict with Jeremiah which resulted in angry Jeremiah cast
13064-521: The Deposit. The term "deposit of faith" refers to the entirety of Jesus Christ's revelation, and is passed to successive generations through scripture and the traditions of the church. The Bible applies the appellation ' false prophet ' to anyone who preaches a Gospel contrary to that delivered to the apostles and recorded in Sacred Scripture. One Old Testament text in Deuteronomy contains
13248-511: The Great . This date gains credence mainly from attempts to connect figures in Zoroastrian texts to historical personages; thus some have postulated that the mythical Vishtaspa who appears in an account of Zoroaster's life was Darius I 's father, also named Vishtaspa (or Hystaspes in Greek). However, if this was true, it seems unlikely that the Avesta would not mention that Vishtaspa's son became
13432-660: The Greek and Achaemenid sources about the 6th and 5th century BC Eastern Iran. The Vendidad contain 17 regional names , most of which are located in north-eastern and eastern Iran. However, in Yasna 59.18, the zaraθuštrotema , or supreme head of the Zoroastrian priesthood, is said to reside in 'Ragha' ( Badakhshan ). In the 9th- to 12th-century Middle Persian texts of Zoroastrian tradition, this 'Ragha' and with many other places appear as locations in Western Iran. While
13616-595: The Latin Zōroastrēs , and, in later Greek orthographies, as Ζωροάστρις , Zōroastris . The Greek form of the name appears to be based on a phonetic transliteration or semantic substitution of Avestan zaraθ- with the Greek ζωρός , zōros (literally 'undiluted') and the BMAC substrate -uštra with ἄστρον , astron , ' star '. In Avestan, Zaraθuštra is generally accepted to derive from an Old Iranian *Zaratuštra- ; The element half of
13800-535: The Marvels of Creation'), he further describes how the Al-Mutawakkil in 247 AH ( 861 AD ) caused the mighty cypress to be felled, and then transported it across Iran, to be used for beams in his new palace at Samarra . Before, he wanted the tree to be reconstructed before his eyes. This was done in spite of protests by the Iranians, who offered a very great sum of money to save the tree. Al-Mutawakkil never saw
13984-616: The Mesopotamian world. A number of scholars once argued that defining a single Mesopotamian religion was not possible, and as such, a systematic exposition of Mesopotamian religion should not be produced. Other have rebutted that this is a mistaken approach, insofar as it would fracture the study of religion among social divisions (such as private religion, religion of the educated), individual cities and provinces ( Ebla , Mari , Assyria ), and time periods ( Seleucid , Achaemenid , etc), and that this fracture would be counterproductive as
14168-766: The Middle Iranian variants of Zarθošt , which, in turn, all reflect Avestan's fricative -θ- . In Middle Persian, the name is 𐭦𐭫𐭲𐭥𐭱𐭲 , Zardu(x)št , in Parthian Zarhušt , in Manichaean Middle Persian Zrdrwšt , in Early New Persian Zardušt , and in modern (New Persian ), the name is زرتشت , Zartosht . The name is attested in Classical Armenian sources as Zradašt (often with
14352-422: The Quran to Muhammad; those prophets are considered "Messengers" or rasūl . Other main prophets are considered messengers or nabī , even if they didn't receive a Book from God. Examples include the messenger-prophets Aaron ( Hārūn ) , Ishmael ( Ismāʿīl ) and Joseph ( Yūsuf ) . Although it offers many incidents from the lives of many prophets, the Quran focuses with special narrative and rhetorical emphasis on
14536-737: The Sumerian moon god Nanna became the Akkadian Sîn while the Sumerian sun god Utu became the Akkadian Shamash . One of the most notable goddesses was the Sumerian sex and war deity Inanna . With the later rise to power of the Babylonians in the 18th century BC, the king, Hammurabi , declared Marduk, a deity who before then had not been of significant importance, to a position of supremacy alongside Anu and Enlil in southern Mesopotamia. Although Marduk may have been modelled after
14720-648: The Sumerian storm-god Ninurta ; whose exploits share great similarity. Perhaps the most significant legend to survive from Mesopotamian religion is the Epic of Gilgamesh , which tells the story of the heroic king Gilgamesh and his wild friend Enkidu , and the former's search for immortality which is entwined with all the gods and their approval. It also contains the earliest reference to The Great Flood . Akkadian religion sometimes took inspiration from influential Sumerian religious leaders and beliefs, and deified Sumerian kings at some points. " Enlil ! his authority
14904-561: The Sumerians, but also was later adopted by the Akkadians, Assyrians and Babylonians as well. Initially, the pantheon was not ordered, but later Mesopotamian theologians came up with the concept of ranking the deities in order of importance. A Sumerian list of around 560 deities that did this was uncovered at Farm and Tell Abû Ṣalābīkh and dated to circa 2600 BC, ranking five primary deities as being of particular importance. One of
15088-535: The Talmud, Obadiah is said to have been a convert to Judaism. The last nevi'im mentioned in the Jewish Bible are Haggai , Zechariah , and Malachi , all of whom lived at the end of the 70-year Babylonian exile of c. 586 to 539 BCE. The Talmud ( Sanhedrin 11a) states that Haggai, Zachariah, and Malachi were the last prophets, and later times have known only the " Bath Kol " (בת קול, lit. daughter of
15272-781: The Tedzen Delta in present-day Turkmenistan . Sarianidi considered the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex region as "the native land of the Zoroastrians and, probably, of Zoroaster himself." Boyce includes the steppes to the west from the Volga . The medieval "from Media" hypothesis is no longer taken seriously, and Zaehner has even suggested that this was a Magi-mediated issue to garner legitimacy, but this has been likewise rejected by Gershevitch and others. The 2005 Encyclopedia Iranica article on
15456-604: The Twelve Apostles. Tertullian , writing of the church meetings of the Montanists (to whom he belonged), described in detail the practice of prophecy in the 2nd-century church. A number of later Christian saints were said to have powers of prophecy, such as Columba of Iona (521–597), Saint Malachy (1094–1148) or Padre Pio (1887–1968). Marian apparitions like those at Fatima in 1917 or at Kibeho in Rwanda in
15640-539: The West through their influence on Judaism and Platonism and have been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy. Among the classic Greek philosophers, Heraclitus is often referred to as inspired by Zoroaster's thinking. In 2005, the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy ranked Zoroaster as first in the chronology of philosophers. Zoroaster's impact lingers today due in part to
15824-653: The Zoroastrian religion. The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies comments that the Islamic conquest of Persia caused a huge impact on the Zoroastrian doctrine. After the Islamic conquest of Persia and the migration of many Zoroastrians to India and after being exposed to Islamic and Christian propaganda, the Zoroastrians, especially the Parsis in India, went so far as to deny dualism and consider themselves completely monotheists. After several transformations and developments, one of
16008-493: The actions performed during their lifetime. Unlike Christian hell , the Mesopotamians considered the underworld neither a punishment nor a reward. Nevertheless, the condition of the dead was hardly considered the same as the life previously enjoyed on earth: they were considered merely weak and powerless ghosts. The myth of Ishtar's descent into the underworld relates that "dust is their food and clay their nourishment, they see no light, where they dwell in darkness." Stories such as
16192-411: The advent of Zoroastrianism and the prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster, various ancient civilizations had individuals who served as intermediaries between humanity and the divine. In ancient Sumer , for instance, figures such as the " ensi " or " lugal " fulfilled roles akin to prophets, offering guidance and interpreting divine will through rituals, omens, and prayers. The ensi was considered
16376-570: The age of 30, Zoroaster experienced a revelation during a spring festival; on the river bank he saw a shining being, who revealed himself as Vohu Manah (Good Purpose) and taught him about Ahura Mazda (Wise Lord) and five other radiant figures. Zoroaster soon became aware of the existence of two primal spirits, the second being Angra Mainyu (Destructive Spirit), with opposing concepts of Asha (order) and Druj (deception). Thus he decided to spend his life teaching people to seek Asha . He received further revelations and saw
16560-578: The behavior of birds ( augury ) and observing celestial and meteorological phenomena ( astrology ), as well as through interpretation of dreams. Often interpretation of these phenomena required the need for two classes of priests: askers (sa'ilu) and observer ( baru ), and also sometimes a lower class of ecstatic seer (mahhu) that was also associated with witchcraft . "Do not return evil to the man who disputes with you, requite with kindness your evil-doer, maintain justice to your enemy... Let not your heart be induced to do evil... Give food to eat, beer to drink,
16744-540: The birthplace of Zoroaster. There are many Greek accounts of Zoroaster, referred usually as Persian or Perso-Median Zoroaster; Ctesias located him in Bactria , Diodorus Siculus placed him among Ariaspai (in Sistan ), Cephalion and Justin suggest east of greater Iran whereas Pliny and Origen suggest west of Iran as his birthplace. Moreover, they have the suggestion that there has been more than one Zoroaster. On
16928-457: The careers of the first four of these five major prophets. Of all the figures before Muhammad, the significance of Jesus in Islam is reflected in his being mentioned in the Quran in 93 verses with various titles attached such as "Son of Mary " and other relational terms, mentioned directly and indirectly, over 187 times. He is thus the most mentioned person in the Quran by reference; 25 times by
17112-507: The centuries. Its adherents consider Ahmad to have appeared as the Mahdi—bearing the qualities of Jesus in accordance with their reading of scriptural prophecies—to revitalize Islam and set in motion its moral system that would bring about lasting peace. They believe that upon divine guidance he purged Islam of foreign accretions in belief and practice by championing what is, in their view, Islam's original precepts as practised by Muhammad and
17296-695: The church's founders, was given the spiritual gift of prophecy . The Branch Davidians are a religious cult which was founded in 1959 by Benjamin Roden as an offshoot of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church. David Koresh , who died in the Waco Siege in 1993, called himself their final prophet and "the Son of God, the Lamb" in 1983. Mani ( Persian : مانی , c. April AD 216 –2 March AD 274 or 26 February AD 277)
17480-506: The claim that the Mesopotamian's "entire existence was infused by their religiosity, just about everything they have passed on to us can be used as a source of knowledge about their religion." The modern study of Mesopotamia ( Assyriology ) is still a fairly young science, beginning only in the middle of the Nineteenth century, and the study of Mesopotamian religion can be a complex and difficult subject because, by nature, their religion
17664-575: The contemporary function of the gift of prophecy, and some in these movements, especially those within the Apostolic-Prophetic Movement , allow for idea that God may continue to gift the church with some individuals who are prophets. Some Christian sects recognize the existence of "modern-day" prophets. One such denomination is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints , which teaches that God still communicates with humankind through prophecy. Joseph Smith , who established
17848-617: The cypress, because he was murdered by a Turkic soldier (possibly in the employ of his son) on the night when it arrived on the banks of the Tigris. Athanasius Kircher identified Zoroaster with Ham . The French figurist Jesuit missionary to China Joachim Bouvet thought that Zoroaster, the Chinese cultural hero Fuxi and Hermes Trismegistus were actually the Biblical patriarch Enoch . The Encyclopædia Iranica indicates that
18032-401: The deity approved, it would accept the image and agree to "inhabit" it. These images were also entertained, and sometime escorted on hunting expeditions. In order to service the gods, the temple was equipped with a household with kitchens and kitchenware, sleeping rooms with beds and side rooms for the deity's family, as well as a courtyard with a basin and water for cleansing visitors, as well as
18216-405: The distinctive features of the Zoroastrian religion gradually faded away and almost disappeared from modern Zoroastrianism This provides an explanation of why a number of parallels have been drawn between Zoroastrian teachings and Islam. Such parallels include the evident similarities between Amesha Spenta and the archangel Gabriel , praying five times a day, covering one's head during prayer, and
18400-575: The divine and the role of prophets in conveying its will. Some examples of prophets in the Tanakh include Abraham , Moses , Miriam , Isaiah, Samuel , Ezekiel, Malachi , and Job . Moses is considered the most important prophet in Judaism . On one occasion during the Exodus journey, "the spirit which was upon Moses" was passed to seventy elders, who were also able to prophesy for one time only, but mostly they could not prophesy again. Moses expressed
18584-626: The divine to humans, including occasionally foretelling future events. In a different interpretation, it means advocate or speaker . It is used to translate the Hebrew word נָבִיא ( nāvî ) in the Septuagint and the Arabic word نبي ( nabī ). W.F. Albright points to the Akkadian Nabu for the origin of these Hebrew (נָבִיא ( nāvî ) and the Arabic نبي ( nabī ) words. The Akkadian nabû means "announcer" or "authorised person", derived from
18768-853: The east than it did in the west. Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century in South China , contemporary to the decline of the Church of the East in Ming China , there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially in Fujian , where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected. This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history. The Quran identifies
18952-442: The effects of drunkenness , but were thought to have a higher degree of perfection than common men. They were thought to be more powerful, all-seeing and all-knowing, unfathomable, and, above all, immortal. One of their prominent features was a terrifying brightness ( melammu ) which surrounded them, producing an immediate reaction of awe and reverence among men. In many cases, the various deities were family relations of one another,
19136-579: The era of the Sasanian state in ancient Persian that refer to the Zoroastrian doctrine do not match the sources that appeared after the collapse of the state, such as the Pahlavi source and others. The reason is that because of the fall of the Sasanian state, the Zoroastrian clerics tried to save their religion from extinction through modifying it to resemble the religion of Muslims to retain followers in
19320-538: The examples to be followed and that they act as they preach. This belief includes some ʾAwliyāʾ such as Lady Fatima and Lady Mary . During his lifetime, Mirzā Ghulām Aḥmad said that he was a prophet of God and became the founder of the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam , which embodied the Mahdī of Islam and fulfilled the messianic prophecies regarding the coming of a savior to various other religious traditions, including Christianity and Hinduism . Followers of
19504-519: The final prophet after Zoroaster , the Gautama Buddha and Jesus Christ . Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far through Aramaic -speaking regions. It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as the Han dynasty and as far west as the Roman Empire . It
19688-552: The first half of the sixth millennium BC, at the time people first began to permanently settle in Mesopotamia owing to improved irrigation. The early religious developments of the region are unknown since they preceded the invention of writing. The first evidence for what is recognisably Mesopotamian religion can be seen with the invention in Mesopotamia of writing circa 3500 BC. The people of Mesopotamia originally consisted of two groups, East Semitic speakers of Akkadian and
19872-415: The form of a ziggurat , which rose to the sky in a series of stairstep stages. Its significance and symbolism have been the subject of much discussion, but most regard the tower as a kind of staircase or ladder for the god to descend from and ascend to the heavens, though there are signs which point towards an actual cult having been practiced in the upper temple, so the entire temple may have been regarded as
20056-521: The fulfillment of a post-Sassanid Zoroastrian prophecy that saw a return of Sassanid emperor Bahram ; Effendi also stated that Zoroaster lived roughly 1000 years before Jesus. In the Gathas , Zoroaster sees the human condition as the mental struggle between aša and druj . The cardinal concept of aša —which is highly nuanced and difficult to translate—is at the foundation of all Zoroastrian doctrine, including that of Ahura Mazda (who
20240-508: The gift of prophecy, while Justin Martyr argued in his Dialogue with Trypho that prophets were not found among the Jews in his time, but that the church had prophets. The Shepherd of Hermas describes revelation in a vision regarding the proper operation of prophecy in the church. Eusebius mentions that Quadratus and Ammia of Philadelphia were both prominent prophets following the age of
20424-474: The god that they are describing above all others. The historian J. Bottéro stated that these poems display "extreme reverence, profound devotion, [and] the unarguable emotion that the supernatural evoked in the hearts of those ancient believers" but that they showed a people who were scared of their gods rather than openly celebrating them. They were thought to offer good luck, success, and protection from disease and demons, and one's place and success in society
20608-689: The god, who was thought to reside and hold court on earth for the good of the city and kingdom. His presence was symbolized by an image of the god in a separate room. The god's presence within the image seems to have been thought of in a very concrete way, as instruments for the presence of the deity." This is evident from the poem How Erra Wrecked the World , in which Erra deceived the god Marduk into leaving his cult statue . Once constructed, idols were consecrated through special nocturnal rituals where they were given "life", and their mouth "was opened" ( pet pî ) and washed ( mes pî ) so they could see and eat. If
20792-415: The gods and have the appropriate attitude towards them. Duties seem to have been primarily of a cultic and ritual nature, although some prayers express a positive psychological relationship, or a sort of conversion experience in regard to a god. Generally the reward to mankind is described as success and long life. Every man also had duties to his fellow man which had some religious character, particularly
20976-413: The gods as well. Besides demons, there were also spirits of the dead , (etimmu) who could also cause mischief. Amulets were occasionally used, and sometimes a special priest or exorcist ( āšipu or mašmašu) was required. Incantations and ceremonies were also used to cure diseases which were also thought to be associated with demonic activity, sometimes making use of sympathetic magic . Sometimes an attempt
21160-437: The gods, and how kings were used as a tool for deliverance. Sumerian myths suggest a prohibition against premarital sex. Marriages were often arranged by the parents of the bride and groom; engagements were usually completed through the approval of contracts recorded on clay tablets. These marriages became legal as soon as the groom delivered a bridal gift to his bride's father. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that premarital sex
21344-444: The gods. Punishment came through sickness or misfortune, which inevitably lead to the common reference to unknown sins, or the idea that one can transgress a divine prohibition without knowing it—psalms of lamentation rarely mention concrete sins. This idea of retribution was also applied to the nation and history as a whole. A number of examples of Mesopotamian literature show how war and natural disasters were treated as punishment from
21528-454: The heart of Zoroastrian belief lies the concept of a singular supreme deity, Ahura Mazda , engaged in an eternal struggle against the forces of darkness and chaos, embodied by Angra Mainyu . Zoroaster, as the primary prophet of this faith, received divine revelations and visions from Ahura Mazda, which formed the basis of the Avesta , the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster's role as
21712-487: The help of religious scholars and translators, to re-construct a working knowledge of the religious history, customs, and the role these beliefs played in everyday life in Sumer, Akkad, Assyria, Babylonia, Ebla and Chaldea during this time. Mesopotamian religion is thought to have been an influence on subsequent religions throughout the world, including Canaanite /Israelite, Aramean , and ancient Greek . Mesopotamian religion
21896-514: The high priest reassured the peoples that the gods, or in the case of the henotheistic Assyrians, the god, was pleased with the current ruler. For the Assyrians who lived in Assur and the surrounding lands, this system was the norm. For the conquered peoples, however, it was novel, particularly to the people of smaller city-states. In time, Ashur was promoted from being the local deity of Assur to
22080-531: The history of Zoroastrianism summarizes the issue with "while there is general agreement that he did not live in western Iran, attempts to locate him in specific regions of eastern Iran, including Central Asia, remain tentative". Zoroaster is recorded as the son of Pourushaspa of the Spitama family, and Dugdōw, while his great-grandfather was Haēčataspa. All the names appear appropriate to the nomadic tradition. His father's name means 'possessing gray horses' (with
22264-550: The history of the Assyrian monarchy. The religion of the Neo-Assyrian Empire centered around the Assyrian king as the king of their lands as well. However, kingship at the time was linked very closely with the idea of divine mandate. The Assyrian king, while not being a god himself, was acknowledged as the chief servant of the chief god, Ashur . In this manner, the king's authority was seen as absolute so long as
22448-662: The hope that "all the L ORD 's people" could be prophets. In addition to writing and speaking messages from God, Israelite or Judean nevi'im ("spokespersons", "prophets") often acted out prophetic parables in their life. For example, in order to contrast the people's disobedience with the obedience of the Rechabites , God has Jeremiah invite the Rechabites to drink wine, in disobedience to their ancestor's command. The Rechabites refuse, for which God commends them. Other prophetic parables acted out by Jeremiah include burying
22632-422: The influence of Babylonian mythology on Jewish mythology and other Near Eastern mythologies, albeit indirect. Indeed, similarities between both religious traditions may draw from even older sources. In March 2020, archaeologists announced the discovery of a 5,000-year-old cultic area filled with more than 300 broken ceremonial ceramic cups, bowls, jars, animal bones and ritual processions dedicated to Ningirsu at
22816-420: The king shared in these meals, and the priests may have had some share in the offerings as well. Incense was also burned before the image, because it was thought that the gods enjoyed the smell. Sacrificial meals were also set out regularly, with a sacrificial animal seen as a replacement ( pūhu ) or substitute ( dinānu ) for a man, and it was considered that the anger of the gods or demons was then directed towards
23000-533: The king's duties to his subjects. It was thought that one of the reasons the gods gave power to the king was to exercise justice and righteousness, described as mēšaru and kettu , literally "straightness, rightness, firmness, truth". Examples of this include not alienating and causing dissension between friends and relatives, setting innocent prisoners free, being truthful, being honest in trade, respecting boundary lines and property rights, and not putting on airs with subordinates. Some of these guidelines are found in
23184-631: The land of Media does not figure at all in the Avesta (the westernmost location noted in scripture is Arachosia ), the Būndahišn , or "Primordial Creation", (20.32 and 24.15) puts Ragha in Media (medieval Rai ). However, in Avestan, Ragha is simply a toponym meaning 'plain, hillside.' Apart from these indications in Middle Persian sources that are open to interpretations, there are a number of other sources. The Greek and Latin sources are divided on
23368-545: The length of successive generations, until they concluded that Zoroaster must have lived "258 years before Alexander". This estimate then re-appeared in the 9th- to 12th-century Arabic and Pahlavi texts of Zoroastrian tradition, like the 10th century Al-Masudi who cited a prophecy from a lost Avestan book in which Zoroaster foretold the Empire's destruction in 300 years, but the religion would last for 1,000 years. In modern scholarship, two main approaches can be distinguished:
23552-401: The lowermost heavenly layer. Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic , thereby accepting the existence of many different deities, both male and female, though it was also henotheistic , with certain gods being viewed as superior to others by their specific devotees. These devotees were often from a particular city or city-state that held that deity as its tutelary deity ; for instance, Enki
23736-613: The mention of Thamud and Iram of the Pillars in the Quran . The Sabians , who believed in free will coincident with Zoroastrians , are also mentioned in the Quran 22:17. Like the Greeks of classical antiquity, Islamic tradition understands Zoroaster to be the founding prophet of the Magians (via Aramaic, Arabic Majus , collective Majusya ). The 11th-century Cordoban Ibn Hazm (Zahiri school) contends that Kitabi "of
23920-458: The most important of these early Mesopotamian deities was the god Enlil , who was originally a Sumerian divinity viewed as a king of the gods and a controller of the world, who was later adopted by the Akkadians. Another was the Sumerian god An, who served a similar role to Enlil and became known as Anu among the Akkadians. The Sumerian god Enki was later also adopted by the Akkadians, initially under his original name, and later as Éa . Similarly
24104-699: The name ( -uštra- ) is thought to be the Indo-Iranian root for 'camel', with the entire name meaning 'he who can manage camels'. Reconstructions from later Iranian languages—particularly from the Middle Persian (300 BC) Zardusht , which is the form that the name took in the 9th- to 12th-century Zoroastrian texts—suggest that *Zaratuštra- might be a zero-grade form of *Zarantuštra- . Subject then to whether Zaraθuštra derives from *Zarantuštra- or from *Zaratuštra- , several interpretations have been proposed. If Zarantuštra
24288-457: The name Isa, third-person 48 times, first-person 35 times, and the rest as titles and attributes. Moses ( Musa ) and Abraham ( Ibrahim ) are also referred to frequently in the Quran. As for the fifth, the Quran is frequently addressed directly to Muhammad, and it often discusses situations encountered by him. Direct use of his name in the text, however, is rare. Rarer still is the mention of Muhammad's contemporaries. Several prominent exponents of
24472-484: The nation under the yoke of Nebuchadnezzar , king of Babylon . In a similar way, the prophet Isaiah had to walk stripped and barefoot for three years to illustrate the coming captivity, and the prophet Ezekiel had to lie on his side for 390 days and to eat measured food to illustrate the coming siege. Prophetic assignment is usually portrayed as rigorous and exacting in the Hebrew Bible, and prophets were often
24656-601: The native culture and religion and Assyria and Babylon continued to exist as entities (although Chaldea and the Chaldeans disappeared), and Assyria was strong enough to launch major rebellions against the Achaemenids in 522 and 482 BC. During this period the Syriac language and Syriac alphabet evolved in Assyria among the Assyrian people, and were centuries later to be the vehicle for the spread of Syriac Christianity throughout
24840-732: The near east. Then, two centuries later in 330 BC, the Macedonian emperor Alexander the Great overthrew the Persians and took control of Mesopotamia itself. After Alexander's death, increased Hellenistic influence was brought to the region by the Seleucid Empire . Assyria and Babylonia later became provinces under the Parthian Empire ( Achaemenid Assyria and province of Babylonia ), Rome (province of Assyria ) and Sasanian Empire (province of Asoristan ). Babylonia
25024-556: The number of prophets at 224,000. Some scholars hold that there are an even greater number in the history of humankind, and only God knows. The Quran says that God has sent a prophet to every group of people throughout time and that Muhammad is the last of the prophets, sent for the whole of humankind. The message of all the prophets is believed to be the same. In Islam, all prophetic messengers are prophets (such as Adam , Noah , Abraham , Moses , Jesus , and Muhammad ) though not all prophets are prophetic messengers. The primary distinction
25208-406: The number which left Egypt, which would make 1,200,000 prophets. The Talmud recognizes 48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to humankind. According to the Talmud, there were also seven women counted as prophetesses whose message bears relevance for all generations: Sarah , Miriam , Devorah , Hannah (mother of the prophet Samuel), Abigail (a wife of King David ), Huldah (from
25392-408: The one begging for alms honor, clothe; in this a man's god takes pleasure, it is pleasing to Shamash, who will repay him with favour. Be helpful, do good" Incantation from the Šurpu series. Although ancient paganism tended to focus more on duty and ritual than morality, a number of general moral virtues can be gleaned from surviving prayers and myths. It was believed that man originated as
25576-416: The original narrative was borrowed from Tabari's record of the "History of Jerusalem". He also mentioned that Zoroastrian was synonymous with Majus . Sibt ibn al-Jawzi instead stated that some older narration said that Zoroaster was a former disciple of Uzair . Al-Tabari (I, 681–683) recounts that Zaradusht accompanied a Jewish prophet to Bishtasb/Vishtaspa. Upon their arrival, Zaradusht translated
25760-619: The other hand, in post-Islamic sources Shahrastani (1086–1153), an Iranian writer originally from Shahristān, in present-day Turkmenistan , proposed that Zoroaster's father was from Atropatene (also in Medea) and his mother was from Rey . Coming from a reputed scholar of religions, this was a serious blow to the various regions which all claimed that Zoroaster originated from their homelands, some of which then decided that Zoroaster must then have then been buried in their regions or composed his Gathas there or preached there. Arabic sources of
25944-524: The overlord of the vast Assyrian domain, which spread from the Caucasus and Armenia in the north to Egypt, Nubia and the Arabian Peninsula in the south, and from Cyprus and the eastern Mediterranean Sea in the west to central Iran in the east. Assur , the patron deity of the city of Assur from the late Bronze Age , was in constant rivalry with the patron deity of Babylon, Marduk . Worship
26128-574: The people of Sumer , who spoke Sumerian , a language isolate . These peoples were members of various city-states and small kingdoms . The Sumerians left the first records, and are believed to have been the founders of the civilization of the Ubaid period (6500 BC to 3800 BC) in Upper Mesopotamia . By historical times they resided in southern Mesopotamia, which was known as Sumer (and much later, Babylonia ), and had considerable influence on
26312-537: The personal gods changed over time and little is known about early practice as they are rarely named or described. In the mid-third millennium BC, some rulers regarded a particular god or gods as being their personal protector. In the second millennium BC, personal gods began to function more on behalf of the common man, with whom he had a close, personal relationship, maintained through prayer and maintenance of his god's statue. A number of written prayers have survived from ancient Mesopotamia, each of which typically exalt
26496-408: The poor and powerless "and inspire Catholic Social Teaching on the preferential option for the poor, workers’ rights, and justice and peace." Christians who believe that the Holy Spirit continues to give spiritual gifts to Christians are known as continuationists . These charismata may include prophecy, tongues , miraculous healing ability, and discernment (Matthew 12:32 KJV "Whosoever speaketh
26680-426: The purification of the temple ( mašmašu ), priests to appease the wrath of the gods with song and music ( kalū ), as well as female singers ( nāru ), male singers ( zammeru ), craftsmen ( mārē ummāni ), swordbearers ( nāš paṭri ), masters of divination ( bārû ), penitents ( šā'ilu ), and others. Besides the worship of the gods at public rituals, individuals also paid homage to a personal deity. As with other deities,
26864-445: The region began to be permanently settled. The earliest evidence of Mesopotamian religion dates to the mid- 4th millennium BC , coincides with the invention of writing , and involved the worship of forces of nature as providers of sustenance. In the 3rd millennium BC , objects of worship were personified and became an expansive cast of divinities with particular functions. The last stages of Mesopotamian polytheism, which developed in
27048-547: The region, particularly numerous literary sources, which are usually written in Sumerian , Akkadian ( Assyro-Babylonian ) or Aramaic using cuneiform script on clay tablets and which describe both mythology and cultic practices. Other artifacts can also be useful when reconstructing Mesopotamian religion. As is common with most ancient civilizations, the objects made of the most durable and precious materials, and thus more likely to survive, were associated with religious beliefs and practices. This has prompted one scholar to make
27232-600: The religions of the Near East were rooted in Babylonian astral science- including the Hebrew Bible and Judaism. This theory of a Babylonian-derived Bible originated from the discovery of a stele in the acropolis of Susa bearing a Babylonian flood myth with many similarities to the flood of Genesis, the Epic of Gilgamesh . However, flood myths appear in almost every culture around the world, including cultures that never had contact with Mesopotamia. The fundamental tenets of Panbabylonism were eventually dismissed as pseudoscientific, however Assyriologists and biblical scholars recognize
27416-501: The ruler of the Persian Empire, or that this key fact about Darius's father would not be mentioned in the Behistun Inscription . It is also possible that Darius I's father was named in honor of the Zoroastrian patron, indicating possible Zoroastrian faith by Arsames . Scholars such as Mary Boyce (who dated Zoroaster to somewhere between 1700 and 1000 BC) used linguistic and socio-cultural evidence to place Zoroaster between 1500 and 1000 BC (or 1200 and 900 BC). The basis of this theory
27600-530: The sacrificial animal. Additionally, certain days required extra sacrifices and ceremonies for certain gods, and every day was sacred to a particular god. The king was thought, in theory, to be the religious leader ( enu or šangū ) of the cult and exercised a large number of duties within the temple, with a large number of specialists whose task was to mediate between men and gods: a supervising or "watchman" priest ( šešgallu ), priests for individual purification against demons and magicians ( āšipu ), priests for
27784-399: The sage's Hebrew teachings for the king and so convinced him to convert (Tabari also notes that they had previously been Sabis ) to the Magian religion. The 12th-century heresiographer al-Shahrastani describes the Majusiya into three sects, the Kayumarthiya (an otherwise undocumented sect that – per Sharastani – seems to have had a stronger doctrine of Ahriman's "non-reality"),
27968-403: The same period and the same region of historical Persia also consider Azerbaijan as the birthplace of Zarathustra. By the late 20th century, most scholars had settled on an origin in eastern Greater Iran. Gnoli proposed Sistan , Baluchistan (though in a much wider scope than the present-day province) as the homeland of Zoroastrianism; Frye voted for Bactria and Chorasmia ; Khlopin suggests
28152-401: The second tablet of the Šurpu incantation series. Sin, on the other hand, was expressed by the words hitu (mistake, false step), annu or arnu (rebellion), and qillatu (sin or curse), with strong emphasis on the idea of rebellion, sometimes with the idea that sin is man's wishing to "live on his own terms" (ina ramanisu). Sin also was described as anything which incited the wrath of
28336-554: The site of Girsu . One of the remains was a duck-shaped bronze figurine with eyes made from bark which is thought to be dedicated to Nanshe . While Mesopotamian religion had almost completely died out by approximately 400–500 AD after its indigenous adherents had largely become Assyrian Christians , it has still had an influence on the modern world, predominantly because many biblical stories that are today found in Judaism , Christianity , Islam and Mandaeism were possibly based upon earlier Mesopotamian myths, in particular that of
28520-427: The south, were not particularly influenced by the movements of the various peoples into and throughout the area. Rather, Mesopotamian religion was a consistent and coherent tradition, which adapted to the internal needs of its adherents over millennia of development. The earliest undercurrents of Mesopotamian religious thought are believed to have developed in Mesopotamia in the 6th millennium BC , coinciding with when
28704-417: The stories of Zoroaster's life were distorted by quoting stories from Christianity and Judaism and attributing them to Zoroaster, but the most quotations were from Islam after the entry of Muslims into Persia, as it was a means for the Zoroastrian clergy to strengthen their religion. The orientalist Arthur Christensen in his book '' Iran During The Sassanid Era'' , mentioned that the sources dating back to
28888-432: The succession of ancient near eastern states did not impact the presence of a broadly shared religious system across them. According to Panbabylonism , a school of thought founded by Hugo Winckler and held in the early 20th century among primarily German Assyriologists, there was a common cultural system extending over the ancient Near East which was overwhelmingly influenced by the Babylonians. According to this theory
29072-412: The target of persecution and opposition. God's personal prediction for Jeremiah, "And they shall fight against thee; but they shall not prevail against thee," was performed many times in the biblical narrative as Jeremiah warned of destruction of those who continued to refuse repentance and accept more moderate consequences. In return for his adherence to God's discipline and speaking God's words, Jeremiah
29256-434: The texts of Judaism (The Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings) and Christianity. Muslims often refer to Muhammad as "the Prophet", in the form of a noun. Jesus is the result of a virgin birth in Islam as in Christianity, and is regarded as a prophet. Traditionally, four prophets are believed to have been sent holy books : the Torah ( Tawrat ) to Moses, the Psalms ( Zābūr ) to David, the Gospel( Injil ) to Jesus, and
29440-449: The third century AD, Manichaeism , which incorporated elements of Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism , Zoroastrianism , and local Mesopotamian religion, developed. With the exception of the Enuma Elish , there are no surviving records that systematically explain Mesopotamian cosmology. Nonetheless, modern scholars have reconstructed a roughly accurate depiction from the surviving evidence, including Sumerian and Akkadian cuneiform and
29624-411: The time of Jeremiah), and Esther . The Talmudic and Biblical commentator Rashi points out that Rebecca , Rachel , and Leah were also prophets. Isaiah 8:3-4 refers to Isaiah's wife, who bore his son Maher-shalal-hash-baz as "the prophetess"; she is not referred to elsewhere. Prophets in the Tanakh are not always Jews; note for example the non-Jewish prophet Balaam in Numbers 22. According to
29808-494: The time of the Sassanid Empire , until the 7th century AD, when the religion itself began to decline following the Arab-Muslim conquest of Iran . Zoroaster is credited with authorship of the Gathas as well as the Yasna Haptanghaiti , a series of hymns composed in Old Avestan that cover the core of Zoroastrian thinking. Little is known about Zoroaster; most of his life is known only from these scant texts. By any modern standard of historiography, no evidence can place him into
29992-489: The titles ensi and especially en (the latter term continuing to designate priests in subsequent times). These prophets, while lacking the systematic theological framework found in later traditions, laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood by demonstrating a connection with the divine and providing spiritual leadership within their communities. Despite the absence of codified scripture or organized religious institutions, these pre-Zoroastrian prophetic figures played
30176-480: The variant Zradešt ). The most important of these testimonies were provided by the Armenian authors Eznik of Kolb , Elishe , and Movses Khorenatsi . The spelling Zradašt was formed through an older form which started with *zur- , a fact which the German Iranologist Friedrich Carl Andreas (1846–1930) used as evidence for a Middle Persian spoken form *Zur(a)dušt . Based on this assumption, Andreas even went so far to form conclusions from this also for
30360-489: The word aspa meaning 'horse'), while his mother's means 'milkmaid'. According to the tradition, he had four brothers, two older and two younger, whose names are given in much later Pahlavi work. Zoroaster's training for priesthood probably started very early around seven years of age. He became a priest probably around the age of 15, and according to Gathas, gaining knowledge from other teachers and personal experience from traveling when he left his parents at age 20. By
30544-401: The world as being locked in an epic battle between opposing forces of good and evil. Manicheanism also incorporated other elements of Zoroastrian tradition, particularly the names of supernatural beings; however, many of these other Zoroastrian elements are either not part of Zoroaster's own teachings or are used quite differently from how they are used in Zoroastrianism. Zoroaster appears in
30728-429: The ‘Lord of the Age’ ( sahib al-’asr ) or the ‘Lord of the Time’ ( sahib al-zaman ). Through them, one can know God, and their invitation to humans to recognize God is called the invitation ( da’wa ). According to Shia Islam , all Prophets and Imams are infallible and the belief in their abstinence from intentional and unintentional sins is a part of the creed. Thus, it is accordingly believed that they are
30912-411: Was polytheistic , worshipping over 2,100 different deities, many of which were associated with a specific state within Mesopotamia, such as Sumer, Akkad, Assyria or Babylonia, or a specific Mesopotamian city. Mesopotamian religion has historically the oldest body of recorded literature of any religious tradition. What is known about Mesopotamian religion comes from archaeological evidence uncovered in
31096-425: Was a common, but surreptitious, occurrence. The worship of Inanna/Ishtar, which was prevalent in Mesopotamia could involve wild, frenzied dancing and bloody ritual celebrations of social and physical abnormality. It was believed that "nothing is prohibited to Inanna", and that by depicting transgressions of normal human social and physical limitations, including traditional gender definition, one could cross over from
31280-475: Was a strong belief in demons in Mesopotamia, and private individuals, like the temple priests, also participated in incantations (šiptu) to ward them off. Although there was no collective term for these beings either in Sumerian or Akkadian, they were merely described as harmful or dangerous beings or forces, and they were used as a logical way to explain the existence of evil in the world. They were thought to be countless in number, and were thought to even attack
31464-486: Was an Iranian prophet and the founder of Manichaeism , a religion most prevalent in late antiquity . Mani was born in or near Seleucia-Ctesiphon (south of modern Baghdad ) in Mesopotamia , at the time part of the Parthian Empire . Seven of his major works were written in Syriac , and the eighth, dedicated to the Sasanian emperor Shapur I , was written in Middle Persian . He died in Gundeshapur . Manichaeism teaches an elaborate dualistic cosmology describing
31648-425: Was an Iranian religious reformer who challenged the tenets of the contemporary Ancient Iranian religion , becoming the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism . Variously described as a sage or a wonderworker ; in the oldest Zoroastrian scriptures, the Gathas , which he is believed to have authored, he is described as a preacher and a poet-prophet. He also had an impact on Heraclitus , Plato , Pythagoras , and
31832-421: Was attacked by his own brothers, beaten and put into the stocks by a priest and false prophet , imprisoned by the king, threatened with death, thrown into a cistern by Judah's officials, and opposed by a false prophet. Likewise, Isaiah was told by his hearers who rejected his message, "Leave the way! Get off the path! Let us hear no more about the Holy One of Israel !" The life of Moses being threatened by Pharaoh
32016-402: Was believed that the gods expressed their will through "words" (amatu) and "commandments" (qibitu) which were not necessarily spoken, but were thought to manifest in the unfolding routine of events and things. There were countless ways to divine the future, such as observing oil dropped into a cup of water ( lecanomancy ), observing the entrails of sacrificial animals ( extispicy ), observation of
32200-462: Was born in one of the two areas and later lived in the other area. Yasna 9 and 17 cite the Ditya River in Airyanem Vaējah (Middle Persian Ērān Wēj ) as Zoroaster's home and the scene of his first appearance. The Avesta (both Old and Younger portions) does not mention the Achaemenids or of any West Iranian tribes such as the Medes , Persians , or even Parthians . The Farvardin Yasht refers to some Iranian peoples that are unknown in
32384-417: Was briefly the main rival to early Christianity in the competition to replace classical polytheism before the spread of Islam . Under the Roman Dominate , Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire. While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived. Manichaeism has survived longer in
32568-461: Was conducted in his name throughout the lands dominated by the Assyrians. With the worship of Assur across much of the Fertile Crescent , the Assyrian king could command the loyalty of his fellow servants of Assur. In 539 BC, Mesopotamia was conquered by the Achaemenid Empire (539–332 BC), then ruled by Cyrus the Great . This brought to an end over 3000 years of Mesopotamian dominance of the Near East. The Persians maintained and did not interfere in
32752-468: Was dissolved as an entity during the Parthian Empire, though Assyria endured as a geopolitical entity until the Muslim conquest of Persia , while the Assyrians are still present today. During the Parthian Empire there was a major revival in Assyria between the second century BC and fourth century AD, with temples once more being dedicated to gods such as Assur , Sin , Shamash , Hadad and Ishtar in various Parthian vassal states in Mesopotamia. In
32936-410: Was governed only by usage, not by any official decision, and by nature it was neither dogmatic nor systematic. Deities, characters, and their actions within myths changed in character and importance over time, and occasionally depicted different, sometimes even contrasting images or concepts. This is further complicated by the fact that scholars are not entirely certain what role religious texts played in
33120-448: Was increasing syncretism between the Sumerian and Akkadian cultures and deities, with the Akkadians typically preferring to worship fewer deities but elevating them to greater positions of power. Like many nations in Mesopotamian history, Assyria was originally, to a great extent, an oligarchy rather than a monarchy. Authority was considered to lie with "the city", and the polity had three main centres of power—an assembly of elders,
33304-505: Was made to capture a demon by making an image of it, placing it above the head of a sick person, then destroying the image, which the demon was somehow likely to inhabit. Images of protecting spirits were also made and placed at gates to ward off disaster. Divination was also employed by private individuals, with the assumption that the gods have already determined the destinies of men and these destinies could be ascertained through observing omens and through rituals (e.g., casting lots). It
33488-430: Was often associated with the city of Eridu in Sumer, Assur with Assur and Assyria , Enlil with the Sumerian city of Nippur , Ishtar with the Assyrian city of Arbela , and the god Marduk with Babylon . Though the full number of gods and goddesses found in Mesopotamia is not known, K. Tallqvist, in his Akkadische Götterepitheta (1938) counted around 2,400 that scholars know, most of which had Sumerian names. In
33672-436: Was the eponym ( limmum ), who gave the year his name, similarly to the eponymous archon and Roman consuls of classical antiquity . He was annually elected by lot and was responsible for the economic administration of the city, which included the power to detain people and confiscate property. The institution of the eponym as well as the formula iššiak Assur lingered on as ceremonial vestiges of this early system throughout
33856-433: Was thought to depend on his personal deity, including the development of his certain talents and even his personality. This was even taken to the point that everything he experienced was considered a reflection of what was happening to his personal god. When a man neglected his god, it was assumed that the demons were free to inflict him, and when he revered his god, that god was like a shepherd who seeks food for him. There
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