80-560: The Cohors XX Palmyrenorum ("20th Cohort of Palmyrenes") was an auxiliary cohort of the Roman Imperial army . It was a cohors equitata milliaria , mixed infantry and cavalry regiment, originally recruited from the inhabitants of Palmyra in Roman Syria . There were also a small number (32–36) of dromedarii forces attached to the infantry. The unit was probably raised in the late 2nd century, when Palmyra became part of
160-574: A cohors milliaria ). These were the mirror image of the double-strength first cohorts of legions also introduced at this time. Such units remained a minority of the Auxilia: in the mid-2nd century, they constituted 13% of units, containing 20% of total manpower. In 106 AD, emperor Trajan finally defeated the Dacian kingdom of Decebalus and annexed it as the Roman province of Dacia Traiana . By
240-422: A Roman citizen had the right to appeal to the emperor, was sent to Rome in chains for judgement by Nero. He was released by Nero's overthrower and successor, Galba , but the latter also disbanded the imperial bodyguard unit for their loyalty to Nero. This alienated several hundred crack Batavi troops, and indeed the whole Batavi nation who regarded it as a grave insult. At the same time, relations collapsed between
320-503: A Roman force and exposing the Roman heartland of Italy to the fear of a rebel invasion. Augustus ordered Tiberius to break off operations in Germany and move his main army to Illyricum. When it became clear that even Tiberius' forces were insufficient, Augustus was obliged to raise a second task force under Tiberius' nephew Germanicus , resorting to the compulsory purchase and emancipation of thousands of slaves to find enough troops, for
400-510: A Roman force sent against them. The Dalmatae were soon joined by the Breuci , another Illyrian tribe that supplied several auxiliary regiments. They gave battle to a second Roman force from Moesia . They lost, but inflicted heavy casualties. The rebels were now joined by a large number of other Illyrian tribes. The Dalmatae attacked the port of Salona and overran the Adriatic coast, defeating
480-598: A Roman, either of knightly rank, or a senior centurion . At the start of Augustus' sole rule (30 BC), the original core auxiliary units in the West were composed of warlike tribesmen from the Gallic provinces (especially Gallia Belgica , which then included the regions later separated to form the provinces Germania Inferior and Germania Superior ), and from the Balkan provinces ( Dalmatia and Illyricum ). By 19 BC,
560-599: A crucial role in both the Roman invasion in 43 AD and the subsequent subjugation of southern Britain. By 69, however, Civilis, the Batavi regiments and the Batavi people had become utterly disaffected with Rome. After the Batavi regiments were withdrawn from Britain to Italy in 66, Civilis and his brother (also a prefect) were arrested by the governor of Germania Inferior on a fabricated accusation of sedition. The governor ordered his brother's execution, while Civilis, who as
640-469: A prolonged period in a foreign province a regiment would become assimilated, since the majority of its new recruits would be drawn from the province in which it was stationed, or neighbouring provinces. Those same "British" units, mostly based on the Danube frontier, would by c. 150, after almost a century away from their home island, be largely composed of Illyrian, Thracian and Dacian recruits. However, there
720-589: A regular basis: sagittarii (archers) from Crete , and funditores ( slingers ) from the Balearic Isles almost always accompanied Roman legions in campaigns all over the Mediterranean. The other main sources of non-Italian troops in the late Republic were subject provincials, allied cities and Rome's amici (satellite kings). During the late Republic, non-Italian units were led by their own native chiefs, and their internal organisation
800-536: A technique for swimming across rivers wearing full armour and weapons. Julius Civilis ( lit. ' Julius the Citizen ' , clearly a Latin name adopted on gaining Roman citizenship , not his native one) was a hereditary prince of the Batavi and the prefect of a Batavi cohort. A veteran of 25 years' service, he had distinguished himself by service in Britain, where he and the eight Batavi cohorts had played
880-727: A total of 381 units and 225,000 effectives. The discrepancy between the two scholars is due to: (i) Interpretation of units with the same name and number, but attested in different provinces in the same period. Spaul tends to take a more cautious approach and to assume such are the same unit moving base frequently, while Holder tends to regard them as separate units which acquired the same number due to duplicated (or even triplicated) seriation. (ii) Assumptions about how many cohortes were equitatae . Spaul accepts only those cohortes specifically attested as equitatae i.e., about 40% of recorded units. Holder estimates that at least 70% of cohortes contained cavalry contingents by
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#1732772646883960-483: A variety of new names. Under Constantine I (r. 312–337) it appears that military units were classified into three grades based on strategic role and to some extent quality: palatini , elite units normally part of the exercitus praesentales (imperial escort armies); comitatenses , higher-grade interception forces based in frontier provinces; and limitanei , lower-grade border troops. (See Late Roman army ). The old Principate auxilia regiments provided
1040-422: Is evidence that a few regiments at least continued to draw some recruits from their original home provinces in the 2nd century e.g. Batavi units stationed in Britain. The Flavian period also saw the first formation of large, double-size units, both infantry and cavalry, of a nominal strength of 1,000 men ( cohors/ala milliaria ), though they were actually mostly smaller (720 for an ala milliaria and 800 for
1120-401: Is evident if one compares calculations by Spaul (2000) and Holder (2003): NOTE: Manpower figures exclude officers (centurions and decurions), which would have numbered about 3,500 men overall. In addition, Holder believes that a further 14 cohortes , which are attested under Trajan, immediately before Hadrian's rule, but not during or after it, probably continued in existence, giving
1200-516: Is no evidence that the citizens-only rule for legions was also abolished at this time. The legions simply gained a much wider recruitment base, as they were now able to recruit any male free resident of the empire. Auxiliary units were now recruited mainly from Roman citizens, but probably continued to recruit non-citizen barbari from outside the Empire's borders. However, the citizens-only rule for legions appears to have been dropped some time during
1280-501: The peregrini , free provincial subjects who did not hold Roman citizenship and constituted the vast majority of the population in the 1st and 2nd centuries (c. 90% in the early 1st century). In contrast to the legions, which only admitted Roman citizens , members of the Auxilia could be recruited from territories outside of Roman control. Reliance on the various contingents of non- Italic troops, especially cavalry, increased when
1360-686: The Bosnian mountains and excellent soldier material. Their territory formed part of the strategic province of Illyricum, recently expanded to include the territory of the Pannonii , Celticised Illyrian tribes based on the west bank of the Danube who were subjugated by Rome in 12–9 BC (the Bellum Pannonicum ). By the start of the Common Era, they were an important recruitment base for
1440-586: The Cantabrian and Asturian Wars were concluded, leading to the annexation of northern Hispania and Lusitania . Judging by the names of attested auxiliary regiments, these parts of the Iberian peninsula soon became a major source of recruits. Then the Danubian regions were annexed: Raetia (annexed 15 BC), Noricum (16 BC), Pannonia (9 BC) and Moesia (6 AD), becoming, with Illyricum,
1520-708: The Carthaginians , the Roman deficiency in cavalry numbers could be a serious liability, which in the Second Punic War (218–202 BC) resulted in crushing defeats. Hannibal 's major victories at the Trebia and at Cannae , were owed to his Spanish and Gallic heavy cavalry, which far outnumbered the Roman and Latin levies, and to his Numidians , light, fast cavalry which the Romans wholly lacked. The decisive Roman victory at Zama in 202 BC, which ended
1600-717: The Roman Empire . At first they served in the province of Dacia . In the early 3rd century they were stationed in Dura-Europos . The headquarters of the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum was the Temple of Artemis Azzanathkona aside the Praetorium . Auxilia The auxilia ( Latin: [au̯kˈs̠ɪlia] ; lit. ' auxiliaries ' ) were introduced as non-citizen troops attached to
1680-655: The Roman Republic employed them in increasing numbers to support its legions after 200 BC. The Julio-Claudian period (27 BC–68 AD) saw the transformation of the Auxilia from motley levies to a standing corps with standardised structure, equipment and conditions of service. By the end of the period, there were no significant differences between legionaries and auxiliaries in terms of training and combat capability. Auxiliary regiments were often stationed in provinces other than that in which they were originally raised, for reasons of security and to foster
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#17327726468831760-460: The Social War of 91–88 BC. The Italian forces were organised into alae (literally 'wings', because they were generally posted on the flanks of the Roman line of battle). An allied ala , commanded by three Roman praefecti sociorum , was similar or slightly larger in infantry size (4–5,000 men) to a legion, but contained a more substantial cavalry contingent: 900 horse, three times
1840-421: The 2nd century, some units with the new names numerus ('group') and vexillatio ('detachment') appear in the diploma record. Their size is uncertain, but was likely smaller than the regular alae and cohortes , as originally they were probably detachments from the latter, acquiring independent status after long-term separation. As these units are mentioned in diplomas, they were presumably part of
1920-647: The 3rd century, as by the 4th-century Romans and barbarians are found serving together in all units. In the mid to late 3rd century, the army was afflicted by a combination of military disasters and of pestilence, the so-called Crisis of the Third Century . In 251–271, Gaul, the Alpine regions and Italy, the Balkans and the East were simultaneously overrun by Alamanni, Sarmatians, Goths and Persians respectively. At
2000-413: The 4th century, it has been estimated that some 25% of regular army recruits were barbarian-born. In the elite palatini regiments, anywhere between a third and a half of recruits may have been barbarian. This is likely a much greater proportion of foreigners than joined the auxilia in the 1st and 2nd centuries. In the 3rd century, a small number of regular auxiliary units appear in the record that, for
2080-483: The 4th century: the Notitia Dignitatum , a key document on the late Roman army , lists a large number of regular units with barbarian names. In the 4th century, the Roman army underwent a radical restructuring. In the rule of Diocletian (284–305), the traditional Principate formations of legiones , alae and cohortes appear to have been broken up into smaller units, many of which bore
2160-562: The Auxilia thus amounted to c. 125,000 men, implying c. 250 auxiliary regiments. During the early Julio-Claudian period, many auxiliary regiments raised in frontier provinces were stationed in or near their home provinces, except during periods of major crises such as the Cantabrian Wars , when they were deployed temporarily in theatre. This carried the obvious risk if their own tribe or ethnic group rebelled against Rome (or attacked
2240-406: The Batavi by attempting to conscript more Batavi than the maximum stipulated in their treaty. The brutality and corruption of the Roman recruiting-centurions (including incidents of sexual assault on Batavi young men) brought already deep discontent in the Batavi homeland to the boil. Civilis now led his people in open revolt. Initially, he claimed he was supporting the bid for power of Vespasian ,
2320-622: The Batavi cohorts and the legion to which they had been attached since the invasion of Britain 25 years earlier ( XIV Gemina ). Their mutual hatred erupted in open fighting on at least two occasions. At this juncture, the Roman empire was convulsed by its first major civil war since the Battle of Actium exactly a century earlier: the Year of the Four Emperors (69–70 AD). The governor of Germania Inferior, ordered to raise more troops, outraged
2400-827: The Batavi', because surrounded by branches of the Rhine), part of the Roman province of Germania Inferior . They were a warlike people, skilled horsemen, boatmen and swimmers. In return for the unusual privilege of exemption from tributum (direct taxes on land and heads normally exacted from peregrini ), they supplied a disproportionate number of recruits to the Julio-Claudian auxilia: one ala and eight cohortes . They also provided most of Augustus' elite personal bodyguard unit (the Germani corpore custodes ), which continued in service until 68 AD. The Batavi auxilia amounted to about 5,000 men, implying that during
2480-556: The Civilis revolt and then embarked on the governorship of the island. The great majority of regiments probably founded in the 1st century were stationed away from their province of origin in the second e.g. of 13 British regiments recorded in the mid-2nd century, none were stationed in Britain. Furthermore, it appears that in the Flavian era native noblemen were no longer permitted to command auxiliary units from their own tribe. After
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2560-462: The Great , were Romanised Illyrians from the provinces of Dalmatia , Moesia Superior and Pannonia . These were members of a military aristocracy, outstanding soldiers who saved the empire from collapse in the turbulent late 3rd century. Significant development of the Auxilia appears to have taken place during the rule of the emperor Claudius (41–54 AD). A minimum term of service of 25 years
2640-631: The Illyrians went on, alongside their neighbours the Thracians, to become the backbone of the Roman army. By the 2nd century, with roughly half the Roman army deployed on the Danube frontier, the auxilia and legions alike were dominated by Illyrian recruits. In the 3rd century, Illyrians largely replaced Italians in the senior officer echelons of praefecti of auxiliary regiments and tribuni militum of legions. Finally, from AD 268 to 379, virtually all emperors, including Diocletian and Constantine
2720-523: The Principate's most important source of auxiliary recruits for its entire duration. In the East, where the Syrians already provided the bulk of the Roman army's archers, Augustus annexed Galatia (25 BC) and Judaea : the former, a region in central Anatolia with a Celtic-speaking people, became an important source of recruits. In N. Africa, Egypt, Cyrene , and Numidia (25 BC) were added to
2800-507: The Republic were made up of part-time conscripts in units that would be raised and disbanded for and after particular campaigns. The Augustan Auxilia were mainly volunteer professionals serving in permanent units. The unit structure of the Auxilia also differed from the Latin alae , which were like legions with a larger cavalry arm. However, Augustus organised the Auxilia into regiments
2880-645: The Rhine joined his cause. Several other German and Gallic units sent against him deserted, as the revolt spread to the rest of Gallia Belgica , including the Tungri, Lingones and Treviri tribes. He was able to destroy the two remaining legions in Germania Inferior, ( V Alaudae and XV Primigenia ). By this stage, Rome's entire position on the Rhine and even in Gaul was imperiled. Their civil war over,
2960-633: The Roman commanders and their rank-and-file soldiers were divided by loyalty to rival emperors. Civilis quickly won the support of the Batavi's neighbours and kinsmen, the Cananefates , who in turn won over the Frisii . First the rebel allies captured two Roman forts in their territory, and a cohort of Tungri defected to Civilis. Then two legions sent against Civilis were defeated when their companion Batavi ala defected to his side. The Classis Germanica (Rhine flotilla), largely manned by Batavi,
3040-549: The Roman frontier from outside the Empire), auxiliary troops could be tempted to make common cause with them. The Romans would then be faced by an enemy that included units fully equipped and trained by themselves, thus losing their usual tactical advantages over tribal foes. The German leader Arminius is the classic example at an individual level: after several years of serving in Rome's forces as prefect of an auxiliary unit, he used
3120-454: The Romans mustered a huge task force of eight legions (five dispatched from Italy, two from Spain and one from Britain) to deal with Civilis. Its commander Petillius Cerialis had to fight two difficult battles, at Trier and Xanten , before he could overrun the Batavi's homeland. Tacitus' surviving narrative breaks off as he describes a meeting on an island in the Rhine delta between Civilis and Cerialis to discuss peace terms. We do not know
3200-562: The addition of five new legions (27,500 men) to a Principate peak of 33. A matching number of auxilia (i.e. c. 50 regiments, although only the names of around 25–30 have survived in the epigraphic record) were probably added, possibly reaching a peak of c. 440 regiments and around 250,000 effectives by the end of Septimius Severus 's rule (211 AD). The likely growth of the Roman auxilia may be summarised as follows: NOTE: Regular land forces only. Excludes citizen-militias, barbarian foederati , and Roman navy effectives During
3280-589: The auxilia. But discontent was festering among the Illyrian tribes, largely due to what they saw as the rapacity of Roman tax officials. In AD 6, several regiments of Dalmatae , a warlike Illyrian tribe, were ordered to report to a designated location to prepare to join Augustus' stepson and senior military commander Tiberius in a war against the Germans. Instead, they mutinied at the assembly point, and defeated
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3360-598: The basis for units at all three grades. The Notitia Dignitatum lists about 70 alae and cohortes that retained their 2nd-century names, mostly limitanei . But traces of other auxilia regiments can be found in the praesentales and comitatenses armies. For example, many of the new-style auxilia palatina infantry regiments, considered among the best units in the army, were probably formed from old-style auxiliary cohortes , which they appear to closely resemble. Roman military confederation Too Many Requests If you report this error to
3440-631: The citizen legions by Augustus after his reorganisation of the Imperial Roman army from 27 BC. By the 2nd century, the Auxilia contained the same number of infantry as the legions and, in addition, provided almost all of the Roman army's cavalry (especially light cavalry and archers ) and more specialised troops. The auxilia thus represented three-fifths of Rome's regular land forces at that time. Like their legionary counterparts, auxiliary recruits were mostly volunteers, not conscripts. The Auxilia were mainly recruited from
3520-465: The command of three decuriones . Cohortes equitatae were infantry cohortes with a cavalry contingent of four turmae attached. Auxiliary regiments were now led by a praefectus (prefect), who could be either a native nobleman, who would probably be granted Roman citizenship for the purpose (e.g. the famous German war leader Arminius gained Roman citizenship probably by serving as an auxiliary prefect before turning against Rome); or
3600-459: The early 2nd century. Even according to the more conservative estimate, the auxilia were by this time significantly larger than the legions, which contained c. 155,000 effectives (28 legions of 5,500 men each) at this time, of which just 3,360 were cavalry. (For a detailed breakdown, see section 4: Auxilia deployment in the 2nd century , below). During the second half of the 2nd century, the Roman army underwent considerable further expansion, with
3680-480: The empire. Numidia (modern day Eastern Algeria) was home to the Numidians/Moors, the ancestors of today's Berber people . Their light cavalry ( equites Maurorum ) was highly prized and had alternately fought and assisted the Romans for well over two centuries: they now started to be recruited into the regular Auxilia. Even more Mauri units were formed after the annexation of Mauretania (NW Algeria, Morocco),
3760-519: The entire Julio-Claudian period, over 50% of all Batavi males reaching military age (16 years) may have enlisted in the auxilia. Thus the Batavi, although just 0.05% of the total population of the empire of c. 70 million in 23 AD, supplied about 4% of the total auxilia i.e. 80 times their proportionate share. They were regarded by the Romans as the very best ( fortissimi , validissimi ) of their auxiliary, and indeed all, their forces. In Roman service, both their cavalry and infantry had perfected
3840-459: The first time since the aftermath of the Battle of Cannae over two centuries earlier. The Romans had now deployed no less than 15 legions and an equivalent number of auxilia. This amounts to a total of c. 150,000 men, including at least 50 auxiliary cohorts composed, exceptionally, of Roman citizens. These were men whose status or background was regarded by Augustus as unsuitable for recruitment into
3920-460: The first time, bear the names of barbarian tribes from outside the empire e.g. the ala I Sarmatarum attested in 3rd-century Britain. This was probably an offshoot of the 5,500 surrendered Sarmatian horsemen posted on Hadrian's Wall by emperor Marcus Aurelius in c. 175. This unit may be an early example of a novel process whereby irregular units of barbari ( foederati ) were transformed into regular auxilia. This process intensified in
4000-468: The general in command of the legions in Syria , whom Civilis had probably befriended when both were involved in the Roman invasion of Britain 25 years earlier (Vespasian was then commander of the legion II Augusta ). But the uprising soon became a bid for independence. Civilis exploited the fact that some legions were absent from the Rhine area due to the civil war, and the rest under-strength. In addition,
4080-556: The imperial throne, it was dangerous to leave provinces exclusively in the hands of auxiliary regiments recruited from the indigenous nation. During the Julio-Claudian period, auxiliary regiments had often been deployed away from their original home province. But in the Flavian period (69–96), this appears to have become standard policy. Thus in AD 70, five reconstituted Batavi regiments (one ala and four cohortes ) were transferred to Britain under Petillius Cerialis, who had suppressed
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#17327726468834160-477: The largest number of auxiliary regiments in any single province: about 60 out of about 400 (15%). By the rule of Nero (54–68), auxiliary numbers may have reached, by one estimate, about 200,000 men, implying about 400 regiments. The Batavi , a Germanic tribe, inhabited the region today known as Gelderland ( Netherlands ), in the Rhine river delta , then known as the Insula Batavorum ('Island of
4240-417: The legionary contingent. Since a pre-Social War consular army always contained an equal number of legions and alae , 75% of its cavalry was provided by the Latin allies. The overall cavalry element, c. 12% of the total force (2,400 out of a normal consular army of approximately 20,000 total effectives), was greater than in most peninsular Italian forces, but well below the overall 21% cavalry component that
4320-527: The legions, and became the core of the standing auxiliary forces that developed in the Julio-Claudian period . During the early part of Augustus' rule (27 BC onwards), the corps of regular Auxilia was created. It was clearly inspired by the Latin forces of the pre-Social War Republic, as a corps of non-citizen troops parallel to the legions. But there were fundamental differences, the same as between Republican and Augustan legions. The Latin forces of
4400-485: The legions: either natural-born citizens of the lowest category, including vagrants and convicted criminals, or the freed slaves (Roman law accorded citizenship to the freed slaves of Roman citizens). These special units were accorded the title civium Romanorum ('of Roman citizens'), or c.R. for short. After the Illyrian revolt, these cohorts remained in being and recruited non-citizens like other auxiliary units, but retained their prestigious c.R. title. In addition,
4480-431: The mid-2nd century, there were 44 auxiliary regiments stationed there, about 10% of the total auxilia. In Britain, there were 60. Together, these two provinces contained about a quarter of the total auxiliary regiments. There is considerable scholarly dispute about the precise size of the auxilia during the imperial era, even during the corp's best-documented period, the rule of Trajan's successor, Hadrian (117–138). This
4560-623: The military training and experience he had gained to lead a confederacy of German tribes against Rome, culminating in the destruction of three Roman legions in the Teutoberg Forest in 9 AD, and the abandonment of Augustus' strategy of annexing Germany as far as the Elbe river. (This strategy was never revived by later emperors). At a collective level, the risk was even greater, as the hugely dangerous Illyrian revolt proved. The central Illyrian tribes were tough and spartan shepherds of
4640-533: The most difficult conflict faced by Rome since the Punic Wars over two centuries earlier. Tiberius finally succeeded in quelling the revolt in 9 AD. This was apparently lucky timing for the Romans: that same year Arminius destroyed Varus ' three legions in Germany. The Roman high command had no doubt that Arminius would have formed a grand alliance with the Illyrians. Despite the gravity of this rebellion,
4720-452: The outcome of this meeting or Civilis' ultimate fate. But, in view of his former friendship with Vespasian, who had already offered him a pardon, and the fact that the Romans still needed the Batavi levies, it is likely that the terms were lenient by Roman standards. Petilius Cerialis took a number of reconstituted Batavi units with him to Britain, and the Batavi regiments continued to serve with special distinction in Britain and elsewhere for
4800-409: The process of Romanization in the provinces. The regimental names of many auxiliary units persisted into the 4th century, but by then the units in question were different in size, structure, and quality from their predecessors. The mainstay of the Roman republic's war machine was the manipular legion , a heavy infantry unit suitable for close-quarter engagements on more or less any terrain, which
4880-477: The regular auxiliary organisation. But numeri was also a generic term used for barbarian units outside the regular auxilia. (see section 2.4 Irregular units , below). In 212, the constitutio Antoniniana (Antonine decree) of emperor Caracalla granted Roman citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the Empire ;– the peregrini – thus abolishing their second-class status. But there
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#17327726468834960-479: The regular forces were assisted by a large number of allied troops from neighbouring Thrace deployed by their king Rhoemetalces I , a Roman amicus (puppet king). The Romans faced further reverses on the battlefield and a savage guerrilla war in the Bosnian mountains. It took them three years of hard fighting to quell the revolt, which was described by the Roman historian Suetonius , writing in c. AD 100, as
5040-549: The rest of the 1st century and beyond. Even as late as 395, units with the Batavi name, although long since composed of recruits from all over the empire, were still classified as elite palatini , e.g. the equites Batavi seniores (cavalry) and auxilium Batavi seniores (infantry). The revolt of the Batavi appears to have led to a significant change in the Roman government's policy on deployment of Auxilia. The revolt proved that in times of civil strife, when legions were far from their bases campaigning for rival claimants to
5120-514: The rest of the Berber homeland, in 44 AD by emperor Claudius (ruled 41–54). Recruitment was thus heavy throughout the Augustan period, with a steady increase in the number of units formed. By AD 23, the Roman historian Tacitus records that there were roughly the same numbers of auxiliaries in service as there were legionaries. Since at this time there were 25 legions of c. 5,000 men each,
5200-484: The role of native cavalry grew, that of Roman/Latin cavalry diminished. In the early 1st century BC, Roman cavalry was phased out altogether. After the Social War, the socii were all granted Roman citizenship, the Latin alae abolished, and the socii recruited into the legions. Furthermore, Roman equestrians were no longer required to perform cavalry service after this time. The late Republican legion
5280-415: The same social rank as most tribuni militum , (military tribunes, a legion's senior staff officers, all of whom only one, the tribunus laticlavius , was of the higher senatorial rank), probably indicates that auxilia now enjoyed greater prestige. Indigenous chiefs continued to command some auxiliary regiments, and were probably granted equestrian rank for the purpose. It is also likely that auxiliary pay
5360-544: The same time, the Roman army was struggling with the effects of a devastating pandemic, probably of smallpox : the Plague of Cyprian , which began in 251 and was still raging in 270, when it claimed the life of emperor Claudius II Gothicus . The evidence for an earlier pandemic, the Antonine Plague (also smallpox) indicates a mortality of 15–30% in the empire as a whole. The armies would likely have suffered deaths at
5440-406: The second rank in Roman society, after the senatorial order – was relatively small. In addition, the legion lacked missile forces such as slingers and archers. Until 200 BC, the bulk of a Roman army's cavalry was provided by Rome's regular Italian allies ( socii ), commonly known as the "Latin" allies, which made up the Roman military confederation . This was Rome's defence system until
5520-406: The size of cohorts (a tenth the size of legions), due to the much greater flexibility of the smaller unit size. Further, the regiments were of three types: ala (cavalry), cohors (peditata) (infantry) and cohors equitata (mixed cavalry/infantry). The evidence for the size of the Augustus' new units is not clear-cut, with our most precise evidence dating to the 2nd century, by which time
5600-410: The top end of the range, due to their close concentration of individuals and frequent movements across the empire. This probably led to a steep decline in military numbers, which only recovered at the end of the century under Diocletian (r. 284–305). The recruitment shortfall caused by the crisis seems to have led to recruitment of barbarians to the auxilia on a much greater scale than previously. By
5680-408: The unit strengths may have changed. Cohortes were likely modelled on legionary cohorts i.e. six centuriae of about 80 men each (total about 480 men). Alae were divided into turmae (squadrons) of 30 (or 32) men, each under a decurio (literally: 'leader of ten'). This title derives from the old Roman cavalry of the pre-Social War republic, in which each turma was under
5760-516: The war, owed much to the Numidian cavalry provided by king Massinissa , which outnumbered the Roman/Latin cavalry fielded by two to one. From then, Roman armies were always accompanied by large numbers of non-Italian cavalry: Numidian light cavalry and, later, Gallic heavy cavalry. For example, Caesar relied heavily on Gallic and German cavalry for his Conquest of Gaul (58–51 BC). As
5840-559: Was established, at the end of which the retiring auxiliary soldier, and all his children, were awarded Roman citizenship. This is deduced from the fact that the first known Roman military diplomas date from the time of Claudius. This was a folding bronze tablet engraved with the details of the soldier's service record, which he could use to prove his citizenship. Claudius also decreed that prefects of auxiliary regiments must all be of equestrian rank, thus excluding centurions from such commands. The fact that auxiliary commanders were now all of
5920-422: Was left to their own commanders. The units varied widely in dress, equipment, and weapons. They were normally raised for specific campaigns and often disbanded soon afterwards, in a similar manner to the earlier socii militia legions. It appears that not all indigenous units were disbanded at the end of the civil war period (31 BC). Some of the more experienced units were kept in existence to complement
6000-481: Was probably adopted sometime during the Samnite Wars (343–290 BC). Despite its formidable strength, the legion had a number of deficiencies, especially a lack of cavalry. Around 200 BC, a legion of 4,200 infantry had a cavalry arm of only 300 horse (just 7% of the total force). This was because the class of citizens who could afford to pay for their own horse and equipment – the equestrian order ,
6080-415: Was seized by Civilis. Most importantly, the eight Batavi cohorts stationed at Mainz with XIV Gemina mutinied and joined him, defeating at Bonn a Roman force that attempted to block their return to their homeland. By now, Civilis commanded at least 12 regiments (6,000 men) of Roman-trained and equipped auxiliary troops, as well as a much larger number of tribal levies. A number of German tribes from beyond
6160-509: Was standardised at this time, but we only have estimates for the Julio-Claudian period. Auxiliary uniform, armour, weapons and equipment were probably standardised by the end of the Julio-Claudian period. Auxiliary equipment was broadly similar to that of the legions (see Section 2.1 below for possible differences in armour). By 68 AD, there was little difference between most auxiliary infantry and their legionary counterparts in equipment, training and fighting capability. The main difference
6240-458: Was that auxilia contained combat cavalry, both heavy and light, and other specialized units that legions lacked. Claudius annexed to the empire three regions that became important sources of auxiliary recruits: Britannia (43 AD), and the former client kingdoms of Mauretania (44) and Thracia (46). The latter became as important as Illyria as a source of auxiliary recruits, especially cavalry and archers. Britain in mid-2nd century contained
6320-512: Was thus probably bereft of cavalry (a tiny cavalry force of 120 men was probably added back to the legion under Augustus ). By the outbreak of the Second Punic War, the Romans were remedying the legions' other deficiencies by using non-Italian specialised troops. Livy reports Hiero of Syracuse offering to supply Rome with archers and slingers in 217 BC. From 200 BC onwards, specialist troops were hired as mercenaries on
6400-518: Was typical of the Principate army (80,000 cavalry out of 380,000 total effectives in the early 2nd century). The Roman/Latin cavalry was sufficient while Rome was in conflict with other states in the mountainous Italian peninsula, which also disposed of limited cavalry resources. But, as Rome was confronted by external enemies that deployed far more powerful cavalry elements, such as the Gauls and
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