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62-402: Commuting is periodically recurring travel between a place of residence and place of work or study, where the traveler, referred to as a commuter , leaves the boundary of their home community. By extension, it can sometimes be any regular or often repeated travel between locations, even when not work-related. The modes of travel, time taken and distance traveled in commuting varies widely across

124-640: A Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions survey in October 2000): Edge city In 1991, Garreau established five rules for a place to be considered an edge city: Most edge cities develop at or near existing or planned freeway intersections, and are especially likely to develop near major airports . They rarely include heavy industry . They often are not separate legal entities but are governed as part of surrounding counties (this

186-465: A passport and visa . Tours are a common type of travel. Examples of travel tours are expedition cruises, small group tours, and river cruises. Authorities emphasize the importance of taking precautions to ensure travel safety . When traveling abroad, the odds favor a safe and incident-free trip, however, travelers can be subject to difficulties, crime and violence. Some safety considerations include being aware of one's surroundings, avoiding being

248-500: A "growth machine" that spreads the urbanization of the United States. They can obscure smaller settlements that are also going through similar phases of redevelopment. Depending on the size of the settlements the modes of urban politics can change. "State interventions are important both conceptually and to the empirical matter of this article since the extent, timing, nature, and legacies of state interventions significantly shape

310-539: A considerable debate among economists as to whether "jobs follow people or people follow jobs," but in the context of the edge city phenomenon, workers have been drawn from metropolitan business hubs in favor of the edge city economy. Developers of edge cities have been shown to strategically plan expansion of such business areas to draw workers away from more dense port cities and thereby keep profits from surrounding interests. Edge cities contribute greatly to urban development by creating new jobs by attracting workers from

372-414: A gender sensitive commuter-centric road safety policy requires to be developed to protect women while commuting as they felt stressed and scared to travel alone, particularly at night. Institutions that have few dormitories or low or no student housing populations are called commuter schools in the United States, like community colleges . Most commuters travel at the same time of day, resulting in

434-435: A half-century later, the D Line subway extension will finally provide rail access, with Century City/Constellation station planned to open in 2025. As recently as 2003, some critics believed that edge cities might turn out to have been only a 20th-century phenomenon because of their limitations. The residents of the low-density housing areas around them tend to be fiercely resistant to their outward expansion (as has been

496-500: A history of severe traffic problems if one of these freeways goes unbuilt. In particular, Century City , a pioneering 1960s edge city built on a former 20th Century Fox backlot in western Los Angeles, was built with long-term plans for access via an urban rail system and the planned Beverly Hills Freeway . Neither project ever came to fruition, resulting in massive congestion on the surface streets connecting Century City to existing freeways, every two miles (3 km) distant. More than

558-463: A long way from their own towns, cities, and villages, especially in industrialised societies . Depending on factors such as the high cost of housing in city centres, lack of public transit , and traffic congestion , modes of travel may include automobiles , motorcycles , trains , aircraft , buses , and bicycles . Where Los Angeles is infamous for its automobile gridlock, commuting in New York

620-650: A long way in transportation since Christopher Columbus sailed to the New World from Spain in 1492, an expedition which took over 10 weeks to arrive at the final destination; to the 21st century when aircraft allows travel from Spain to the United States overnight. Travel in the Middle Ages offered hardships and challenges, though it was important to the economy and to society. The wholesale sector depended (for example) on merchants dealing with/through caravans or sea-voyagers, end-user retailing often demanded

682-514: A push for more accessibility by transit and bicycle, and addition of housing in denser, urban-style neighborhoods within the edge city. For example, at Tysons, in the Washington, D.C., metro area, the plan remains to see the city become the downtown core of Fairfax County. To this point "…eight districts have been delimited, with four centered on new metro stations being transit-oriented development districts". Future plans to transportation around

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744-463: A result of the invention of the steam railway . The word commuter derives from the early days of rail travel in US cities, such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Chicago, where, in the 1840s, the railways engendered suburbs from which travelers paid a reduced or 'commuted' fare into the city. Later, the back formations "commute" and "commuter" were coined therefrom. Commuted tickets would usually allow

806-410: A result, the needs of worker households must be sustained and this leads to a wider field of job search beyond a local area to the next nearest city or metropolitan area, resulting in the requirement for commuting. Hence, in areas where little or no transit options exist that can facilitate a journey to work to meet the requirements of a worker schedule, the use of a car is therefore made necessary. This

868-440: A significant growth in sophisticated retail, entertainment, and consumer service facilities, which in turn leads to a rise in local employment opportunities. The edge city has a tendency to affect the surrounding areas by procuring more opportunities within the labor market. Edge Cities are well suited to an economy which is known for a service-oriented market as well as sustaining major manufacturing sectors. Political groups aid

930-602: A week or more at a time rather than the more typical daily commute. Transportation links that enable commuting also impact the physical layout of cities and regions, allowing a distinction to arise between mostly-residential suburbs and the more economically focused urban core of a city (process known as suburban sprawl ), but the specifics of how that distinction is realized remain drastically different between societies, with Eurasian "suburbs" often being more densely populated than North American "urban cores". The first separation between workplace and place of residence occurred as

992-548: A ‘privatopia’ is formed within edge city residential areas, where the private housing developments are administered by homeowner associations. In 1964 there were fewer than 500 associations, but “…by 1992, there were 150,000 associations privately governing approximately 32 million Americans”. As with any city, edge cities go through phases of growth and redevelopment. Politics within Edge Cities are unique in that they typically revolve around developing them. They contribute to

1054-496: Is a major factor contributing to air pollution . Carpool lanes can help commuters reach their destinations more quickly, encourage people to socialize, and spend time together, while reducing air pollution . Some governments and employers have introduced employee travel reduction programs that encourage such alternatives as carpooling and remote work . Some are also carpooling using Internet sites to save money. Alternatives like personal rapid transit have also been proposed to reap

1116-418: Is a personal choice driven by financial need, highlighting the broader issue of sustaining local economies. Since commuting largely stems from a need to travel outside a home community to sustain a household income while facing a bleak local employment market, this comes with additional social and health implications. First, there is the increased risk of injury and accident while driving as distance and time in

1178-452: Is back!". Garreau shows how edge cities developed in a U.S. context. Starting in the 1950s, businesses were incentivized to open branches in the suburbs and eventually in many cases, leave traditional downtowns entirely, due to increased use of the automobile and move of middle and upper class residents to suburbs, which in turn led to frustration with downtown traffic and lack of parking. Escalating land values in central downtown areas, and

1240-453: Is closely associated with the subway; in London and Tokyo and several European cities, "commuter" is automatically associated with rail passengers. In the near future there may be another move away from the traditional "commute" with the introduction of flexible working. Some have suggested that many employees would be far more productive and live healthier, stress-free lives if the daily commute

1302-508: Is dichotomous with the satisfaction of a sustainable income and good employment, which is clearly the goal of an individual who is faced with commuting. Travel Travel is the movement of people between distant geographical locations . Travel can be done by foot , bicycle , automobile , train , boat , bus , airplane , ship or other means, with or without luggage , and can be one way or round trip. Travel can also include relatively short stays between successive movements, as in

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1364-457: Is more dependent on location: in more populous, older cities, especially in Eurasia mass transit (rail, bus, etc.) predominates, while in smaller, younger cities, and large parts of North America and Australasia, commuting by personal automobile is more common. A small number of very wealthy people, and those working in remote locations around the world, also commute by air travel , often for

1426-1047: Is more often the case in the East than in the Midwest, South, or West). They are numerous—almost 200 in the United States, compared to 45 downtowns of comparable size —and are large geographically because they are built at automobile scale. Garreau identified three distinct varieties of the edge city phenomenon: Additional terms are used to refer to edge cities, such as suburban business districts , major diversified centers , suburban cores , minicities , suburban activity centers , cities of realms , galactic cities , urban subcenters , pepperoni-pizza cities , superburbia , technoburbs , nucleations , disurbs , service cities , perimeter cities , peripheral centers , urban villages , and suburban downtowns . Spatially, edge cities primarily consist of mid-rise office towers (with some skyscrapers ) surrounded by massive surface parking lots and meticulously manicured lawns, almost reminiscent of

1488-435: Is often a requirement to obtain temporary auto insurance valid in the country being visited. It is also advisable to become oriented with the driving rules and regulations of destination countries. Wearing a seat belt is highly advisable for safety reasons; many countries have penalties for violating seatbelt laws . There are three main statistics which may be used to compare the safety of various forms of travel (based on

1550-420: Is often made necessary due to local employment market factors which may stem from the decline of manufacturing (i.e., in cities where large manufacturing employers have either closed or laid off workers, with no other employers to absorb that loss) and, in general, the sheer lack of local employment. More specifically, wages from local employers are often insufficient for a worker household to sustain itself. As

1612-460: Is removed completely. Commuting has had a large impact on modern life. It has allowed cities to grow to sizes that were previously not practical, and it has led to the proliferation of suburbs. Many large cities or conurbations are surrounded by commuter belts , also known as metropolitan areas , commuter towns , dormitory towns, or bedroom communities. The prototypical commuter lives in one of these areas and travels daily to work or to school in

1674-565: The United Arab Emirates , the edge city is quickly emerging as an important new development form as automobile ownership skyrockets and marginal land is bulldozed for development. For example, the outskirts of Bangalore , India are increasingly replete with mid-rise mirrored-glass office towers set amid lush gardens and sprawling parking lots where many foreign companies have set up shop. Dubai offers another example. The emergence of edge cities has not been without consequences to

1736-660: The streetcar has a pedestrian-friendly grid pattern of relatively narrow streets, most edge cities instead have a hierarchical street arrangement centered on pedestrian-hostile arterial roads , making most of this generation of edge cities difficult to get to and get around with public transportation or by walking, although transit was sometimes added in later decades, such as the Silver Line metro linking Downtown Washington, D.C. , with Arlington and Tysons edge cities, and government-planned edge cities in London ( Canary Wharf ) and Paris ( La Défense ) integrated transit from

1798-493: The 2014 ACS, the average commute time for adults in the United States was 26.8 minutes. The occupations with the longest commutes were Construction and Mining (33.4 minutes), Computer Science and Math (31.8), and Business Operations Specialists (30.2), while those in the military had the shortest commute (21). In general, urban and suburban workers in the US have similar commute times (about 30 minutes), while rural workers have significantly shorter commutes (22.6 minutes). In

1860-511: The 20th century, notably after the Second World War where there was a surplus of both aircraft and pilots. Air travel has become so ubiquitous in the 21st century that one woman, Alexis Alford , visited all 196 countries before the age of 21. Travel may be local, regional, national (domestic) or international. In some countries, non-local internal travel may require an internal passport , while international travel typically requires

1922-614: The Miracle Mile as a retail strip). Garreau's classic example of an edge city is the information technology center Tysons, Virginia , west of Washington, D.C. Garreau shows how edge cities have also developed in other countries, specifically citing Canada, Mexico, Australia, and cities such as Paris, London, Karachi, Jakarta, and Tianjin, China. In the cases of London and Paris he notes how these edge cities developed with government planning and with integrated public transportation. Edge cities planned around freeway interchanges have

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1984-410: The US, over 90% of workers commute by car, while about 5% commute by public transportation . Statistical models indicate that in addition to demographics and work duration, commute time is one of the most important determinants of discretionary time allocation by individuals. The number of students who commute to college continues to increase significantly as the years go by. From 1996 to 2006 alone,

2046-440: The advent of a network of railways in the 19th century. Travel for the purpose of tourism is reported to have started around this time when people began to travel for fun as travel was no longer a hard and challenging task. This was capitalized on by people like Thomas Cook selling tourism packages where trains and hotels were booked together. Airships and airplanes took over much of the role of long-distance surface travel in

2108-479: The area continue to be made, the accessibility of the area is on the rise with many forms of transportation being formed. "The aims of the plan are for 75% of development to be within half a mile of metro stations, an urban center of 200,000 jobs and 100,000 residents, a jobs balance of 4.0 per household". Despite the lessons of the American experience, in rapidly developing countries such as China and India and

2170-476: The case in Tysons and Century City ), but because their internal road networks are severely limited in capacity, densification is more difficult than in the traditional grid network that characterizes traditional CBDs and secondary downtowns. As a result, construction of medium- and high-density housing in edge cities ranges was perceived to be "difficult to impossible". Because most are built at automobile scale, it

2232-676: The case of tourism . The origin of the word "travel" is most likely lost to history. The term "travel" may originate from the Old French word travail , which means 'work'. According to the Merriam-Webster dictionary, the first known use of the word travel was in the 14th century. It also states that the word comes from Middle English travailen , travelen (which means to torment, labor, strive, journey) and earlier from Old French travailler (which means to work strenuously, toil). In English, people still occasionally use

2294-665: The core city. As urban sprawl pushes further and further away from central business districts , new businesses can appear in outlying cities , leading to the existence of the reverse commuter who lives in a core city but works in the suburbs, and to a type of secondary commuter who lives in a more distant exurb and works in the outlying city or industrial suburb . A UK study, published in 2009, found that on average women suffer four times as much psychological stress from their work commute as men do. An Indian study conducted in Mangalore led by Edmond Fernandes stated that creating

2356-662: The creation of the edge city in a particular way. There is usually a development commission or similar organization that operates in parallel to, and interact with standard city, county, and state government institutions. Some authors call such commissions private "proto-government" or "shadow governments". According to authors Phelps and Dear, these "shadow governments can tax, legislate for, and police their communities, but they are rarely accountable, are responsive primarily to wealth (as opposed to numbers of voters), and subject to few constitutional constraints”, as "edge cities have had substantial investments placed in them". In most cases

2418-423: The designs of Le Corbusier . Instead of a traditional street grid, their street networks are hierarchical , consisting of winding parkways (often lacking sidewalks) that feed into arterial roads or freeway ramps. However, edge cities feature job density similar to that of secondary downtowns found in places such as Newark and Pasadena ; indeed, Garreau writes that edge cities' development proves that "density

2480-715: The destination. Travel to Mount Everest , the Amazon rainforest , extreme tourism , and adventure travel are more difficult forms of travel. Travel can also be more difficult depending on the method of travel, such as by bus , cruise ship , or even by bullock cart . Reasons for traveling include recreation , holidays, rejuvenation, tourism or vacationing , research travel, the gathering of information, visiting people, volunteer travel for charity , migration to begin life somewhere else, religious pilgrimages and mission trips , business travel , trade , commuting , obtaining health care, waging or fleeing war , for

2542-460: The development of communications (telephone, fax, email and other electronic communication) also enabled the trend. Despite early examples in the 1920s, it was not until car ownership surged in the 1950s, after four decades of fast, steady growth, that it was possible for edge cities to emerge on a large scale. Whereas virtually every American central business district (CBD) or secondary downtown that developed around non-motorized transportation or

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2604-479: The edge city and the surrounding areas. Through Garreau, the term edge city has provided information on how corporate players remain important to the strength of urban and regional subsets. Garreau describes that the edge city has a tendency to have a large service-oriented industry linked to the national economy. The edge city offers supplies to the local area in the form of retail facilities and consumer services. Progressively different services begin to move towards

2666-469: The edge city as the population of corporate businesses increase. The corporate offices fill in space in edge cities and provide connections to exterior locations if decisions are being made from those locales. Not only do corporate, service, and transportation based edge cities exist, but the innovation-driven edge cities will generate extra- metropolitan linkages. These innovative edge cities expand various corporate activities as hosts. Edge cities may create

2728-535: The energy-efficiency benefits of a mass transit system while maintaining the speed and convenience of individual transport. Traffic emissions, such as from cars and trucks , also contribute. Airborne by-products from vehicle exhaust systems cause air pollution and are a major ingredient in the creation of smog in some large cities. The major culprits from transportation sources are carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO and NO x ), volatile organic compounds , sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are

2790-686: The enjoyment of traveling, or other reasons. Travelers may use human-powered transport such as walking or bicycling ; or vehicles , such as public transport , automobiles , trains , ferries , boats , cruise ships and airplanes . Motives for travel include: Travel dates back to antiquity where wealthy Greeks and Romans would travel for leisure to their summer homes and villas in cities such as Pompeii and Baiae . While early travel tended to be slower, more dangerous, and more dominated by trade and migration, cultural and technological advances over many years have tended to mean that travel has become easier and more accessible. Humankind has come

2852-416: The globe. Most people in least-developed countries continue to walk to work. The cheapest method of commuting after walking is usually by bicycle , so this is common in low-income countries but is also increasingly practised by people in wealthier countries for environmental and health reasons. In middle-income countries, motorcycle commuting is very common. The next technology adopted as countries develop

2914-658: The late 16th century, it became fashionable for young European aristocrats and wealthy upper-class men to travel to significant European cities as part of their education in the arts and literature. This was known as the Grand Tour , and included cities such as London, Paris, Venice, Florence, and Rome. However, the French Revolution brought with it the end of the Grand Tour. Travel by water often provided more comfort and speed than land-travel, at least until

2976-517: The main components of petroleum fuels such as gasoline and diesel fuel . These molecules react with sunlight, heat, ammonia , moisture, and other compounds to form the noxious vapours, ground level ozone , and particles that comprise smog. In the United States, the Census Bureau 's American Community Survey (ACS) collects data on commuting times, allowing an analysis of average commute time by industry, location, and vehicle. According to

3038-471: The metropolitan areas around it. Also as a result of the rise of edge cities, more department stores, hotels, apartments, and office spaces are created . There are more edge cities than their downtown counterparts of the same size. Garreau states one reason for the rise of edge cities is that, "Today, we have moved our means of creating wealth, the essence of urbanism - our jobs - out to where most of us have lived and shopped for two generations. That has led to

3100-464: The metropolitan areas they surround. Edge cities arise from population decentralization from large major core cities and has been ongoing since the 1960s. Shifts in socioeconomics in metro areas (including rising real estate prices during periods of stagnant wages), location of metro industrial areas, and labor competition between edge cities and their more central neighbors have been attributed to their development and continued expansion. There has been

3162-422: The mode of urban politics in different places and in a single place over time". State interventions are essential to the politics in developing edge cities. Tysons, Virginia is an example that went through the process of development due to the county government's aggressive recruitment of businesses. Similar methods of development can be seen and applied to other edge cities as well. Tysons recruited businesses with

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3224-697: The morning and evening rush hours , with congestion on roads and public transport systems not designed or maintained well enough to cope with the peak demands. As an example, Interstate 405 located in Southern California is one of the busiest freeways in the United States. Commuters may sit up to two hours in traffic during rush hour. Construction work or collisions on the freeway distract and slow down commuters, contributing to even longer delays. Cars carrying only one occupant use fuel and roads less efficiently than shared cars or public transport , and increase traffic congestion . Commuting by car

3286-631: The percentage of undergraduate students who commuted to campus began to increase at a rate of 30% to 50%. In a study involving 10 universities in Canada, 61% of students reported that their commute was a challenge to campus participation, while 30% perceived it as a barrier to academic success. Factors influencing satisfaction included commute mode, duration, travel attitudes, and campus type. Notably, 72% of students had one-way commutes of one hour or less, 22% had commutes lasting between 60 and 90 minutes, and 9% faced commutes exceeding 90 minutes. Commuting

3348-491: The promise of growth in the future. More businesses coming in allowed for the city to grow which led to the businesses growing as well. A chain reaction was created which crafted the modern-day Tysons. This community was also an example of politics playing a role in developing an edge city. It could be traced to a special commission established at the request of the Fairfax County Board of Supervisors that examined

3410-440: The rise of Edge City." In comparison with urban centers edge cities offer global corporations many advantages: cheaper land, security, efficient land communications, advanced technological installations, and a high quality of life for their employees and executives. The appeal of edge cities attract large corporations as well, boosting the already growing city. This concept has showcased the impact that national economies have on

3472-492: The services of many itinerant peddlers wandering from village to hamlet, gyrovagues (wandering monks) and wandering friars brought theology and pastoral support to neglected areas, traveling minstrels toured, and armies ranged far and wide in various crusades and in sundry other wars. Pilgrimages were common in both the European and Islamic world and involved streams of travelers both locally and internationally. In

3534-526: The start. The first edge city was Detroit's New Center , developed in the 1920s, three miles (5 km) north of downtown, as a new downtown for Detroit. New Center and the Miracle Mile section of Wilshire Boulevard in Los Angeles are considered the earliest automobile-oriented urban forms. However the two were built with radically different purposes in mind (New Center as an office park,

3596-500: The target of a crime, leaving copies of one's passport and itinerary information with trusted people, obtaining medical insurance valid in the country being visited and registering with one's national embassy when arriving in a foreign country. Many countries do not recognize drivers' licenses from other countries; however most countries accept international driving permits . Automobile insurance policies issued in one's own country are often invalid in foreign countries, and it

3658-446: The traveler to repeat the same journey as often as they liked during the period of validity: normally, the longer the period the cheaper the cost per day. Before the 19th century, most workers lived less than an hour's walk from their work. The Industrial Revolution brought specialization of work and workplaces, and relocated most paid work from households and rural areas to factories in urban areas. Today, many people travel daily to work

3720-405: The vehicle increases, which is generally observed when operating a vehicle. Fatigue and hazardous road conditions add to this risk. Second, while income from employment is greater in other cities, stress from commuting factors become a factor for personal health. Ironically, stress from having to locate employment or being placed in a low-income situation might lead to a similar outcome. However, this

3782-496: The words travail , which means struggle. According to Simon Winchester in his book The Best Travelers' Tales (2004) , the words travel and travail both share an even more ancient root: a Roman instrument of torture called the tripalium (in Latin it means "three stakes", as in to impale). This link may reflect the extreme difficulty of travel in ancient times. Travel in modern times may or may not be much easier, depending upon

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3844-423: Was felt that "mass transit frequently could not serve them well". Pedestrian access to and circulation within an edge city was perceived to be impractical if not impossible, even if residences are nearby. Revitalization of edge cities was seen to be "the major urban renewal project of the 21st century". Today, many edge cities have plans for densification, sometimes around a walkable downtown-style core, often with

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