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124-401: Rabbi Zecharias Frankel (1801–1875) was a leading figure in mid-19th-century German Jewry. Known for both his traditionalist views and the esteem he held for scientific study of Judaism, Frankel was at first considered a moderate figure within the nascent Reform movement . He severely criticized the 1844 first Reform rabbinic conference of Braunschweig , yet eventually agreed to participate in

248-420: A moreh hora'ah ("a teacher of rulings"). A more advanced form of semikhah is yadin yadin ("He may judge, he may judge" or "May he judge? He may judge."). This enables the recipient to serve as a judge on a rabbinical court and adjudicate cases of monetary law, among other responsibilities. The recipient of this ordination can be formally addressed as a dayan ("judge") and also retain the title of rabbi. Only

372-715: A charter from the state of New York (approved Feb. 20, 1902), "for the perpetuation of the tenets of the Jewish religion , the cultivation of Hebrew literature , the pursuit of Biblical and archeological research, the advancement of Jewish scholarship, the establishment of a library , and the education and training of Jewish rabbis and teachers. It is empowered to grant and confer the degrees of Rabbi , Ḥazan , Master and Doctor of Hebrew Literature, and Doctor of Divinity , and also to award certificates of proficiency to persons qualified to teach in Hebrew schools ." The reorganized seminary

496-543: A congregational rabbi, teacher, chaplain, Hillel director, camp director, social worker or administrator—through the placement office of his or her seminary. Like any modern professional, he or she will negotiate the terms of employment with potential employers and sign a contract specifying duties, duration of service, salary, benefits, pension and the like. A rabbi's salary and benefits today tend to be similar to those of other modern professionals, such as lawyers and accountants, with similar levels of post-graduate education. It

620-530: A full-time occupation. Under these conditions, the Geonim collected taxes and donations at home and abroad to fund their schools ( yeshivot ) and paid salaries to teachers, officials and judges of the Jewish community, whom they appointed. Maimonides (1135–1204), who supported himself as a physician, reasserted the traditional view of offering rabbinic service to the Jewish community without compensation. It remains

744-464: A high school education and 46% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 26% of Bronx residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher. The percentage of University Heights and Fordham students excelling in math rose from 19% in 2000 to 43% in 2011, and reading achievement increased from 24% to 28% during the same time period. University Heights and Fordham's rate of elementary school student absenteeism

868-782: A key Frankel student and one of the founders of the American JTS, was himself Orthodox, and claimed that the Breslau seminary was completely Orthodox. Others disagree, citing the published viewpoint of Frankel. In his magnum opus Darkhei HaMishnah ( Ways of the Mishnah ), Frankel amassed scholarly support which showed that Jewish law was not static, but rather had always developed in response to changing conditions. He called his approach towards Judaism "Positive-Historical", which meant that one should accept Jewish law and tradition as normative, yet one must be open to changing and developing

992-529: A little time for a Homiletics class, very little time was spent on practical training for serving in a rabbinical position. As of 1904 there were 37 students in the theological department, and 120 students took a set of courses designed for teachers. This set of course later evolved into the Teachers Institute. Mordechai Kaplan joined the faculty during this period, becoming professor of homiletics following Joseph Mayor Asher's death. Kaplan became

1116-614: A manner that was accessible to persons of any faith. The show continued to run until 1985. During the 1940s, the Jewish Theological Seminary established Camp Ramah as a tool for furthering Jewish education . The founders envisioned an informal camp setting where Jewish youth would reconnect with the synagogue and Jewish tradition, and a new cadre of American-born Jewish leadership could be cultivated. The first camp opened in Conover, Wisconsin in 1947. The program

1240-441: A modified curriculum, generally focusing on leadership and pastoral roles. These are JSLI , RSI , PRS , and Ateret Tzvi . The Wolkowisk Mesifta is aimed at community professionals with significant knowledge and experience, and provides a tailored curriculum to each candidate. Historically and until the present, recognition of a rabbi relates to a community's perception of the rabbi's competence to interpret Jewish law and act as

1364-446: A new Riverdale campus in 1970. The New York Public Library (NYPL) operates two branches near University Heights. The Francis Martin branch is located at 2150 University Avenue. Named after Bronx's first district attorney Francis W. Martin , the branch opened in 1957 and was renovated in 2008. The Jerome Park branch is located at 118 Eames Place. The branch first opened in 1957, but moved to its current one-story structure in 1969 and

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1488-505: A number of modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin have been made. So far, no such attempt has been accepted as valid among the consensus of rabbis, or persisted for longer than about a century. Since the end of classical ordination, other forms of ordination have developed which use much of the same terminology, but have a lesser significance in Jewish law. Nowadays, a rabbinical student is awarded semikhah (rabbinic ordination) after

1612-564: A particular community but may not be accepted as a credible authority on Jewish law. These debates cause great problems for recognition of Jewish marriages, conversions, and other life decisions that are touched by Jewish law. Orthodox rabbis do not recognize conversions by non-Orthodox rabbis. Conservative rabbis recognise all conversions done according to Halakha . Finally, the North American Reform and Reconstructionists recognize patrilineality , under certain circumstances, as

1736-442: A place where wealthy people had their mansions and suburban villas, to an urban neighborhood built almost entirely of low-rise apartment buildings housing the prosperous middle classes. University Heights has a population of around 25,702. There is a mix of renter-occupied as well as owner-occupied households. The demographics are 23.0% African American, 2.0% White , 3.4% Asian or Pacific Islander and 72.6% Hispanic or Latino ,

1860-499: A prefix in construct forms. Although the usage rabim "many" (as 1 Kings 18:25, הָרַבִּים ‎) "the majority, the multitude" occurs for the assembly of the community in the Dead Sea Scrolls , there is no evidence to support an association of this use with the later title "rabbi". The root is cognate to Arabic ربّ rabb , meaning "lord" (generally used when talking about God, but also about temporal lords), and to

1984-550: A relatively average population of residents who are uninsured . In 2018, this population of uninsured residents was estimated to be 14%, higher than the citywide rate of 12%. The concentration of fine particulate matter , the deadliest type of air pollutant , in University Heights and Fordham is 0.0083 milligrams per cubic metre (8.3 × 10  oz/cu ft), more than the city average. Sixteen percent of University Heights and Fordham residents are smokers , which

2108-452: A salary, as if he were relinquishing a salary from secular employment. The size of salaries varied, depending on the size of the community served, with rabbis in large cities being well-compensated while rabbis in small towns might receive a small stipend. Rabbis were able to supplement their rabbinic incomes by engaging in associated functions and accepting fees for them, like serving as the community's scribe, notary and archivist, teaching in

2232-783: A satellite campus in Jerusalem for JTS rabbinical students studying in Israel. A building was completed in 1962. (The campus eventually evolved into the home of the Schechter Institute of Jewish Studies .) In 1962, the seminary also acquired the Schocken Institute for Jewish Research and its library in Jerusalem. In 1968, JTS received a charter from the State of New York to create an Institute for Advanced Studies in

2356-833: A small number of students obtain official ordination to become dayanim ("judges") on religious courts , poskim ("decisors" of Jewish law ), as well as teachers in the Hasidic schools. The same is true for the non-Hasidic Litvish yeshivas that are controlled by dynastically transmitted rosh yeshivas and the majority of students will not become rabbis, even after many years of post-graduate kollel study. Some yeshivas, such as Yeshivas Chafetz Chaim and Yeshivas Ner Yisroel in Baltimore , Maryland, may encourage their students to obtain semichah and mostly serve as rabbis who teach in other yeshivas or Hebrew day schools. Other yeshivas, such as Yeshiva Chaim Berlin ( Brooklyn , New York) or

2480-641: A small percentage of rabbis earn the yadin yadin ordination. Although not strictly necessary, many Orthodox rabbis hold that a beth din (court of Jewish law) should be made up of dayanim with this ordination. An Orthodox semikhah requires the successful completion of a program encompassing Jewish law (" Halakha ") and responsa in keeping with longstanding tradition. Orthodox rabbis typically study at yeshivas , "colleges" which provide Torah study generally, and increasingly at dedicated institutions known as kollelim ; both are also referred to as " Talmudical/Rabbinical schools or academies ". In both cases,

2604-494: A strong background within Jewish law, liturgy, Talmudic study, and attendant languages (e.g., Hebrew , Aramaic and in some cases Yiddish ). Specifically, students are expected to have acquired deep analytic skills , and breadth, in Talmud before commencing their rabbinic studies. At the same time, since rabbinical studies typically flow from other yeshiva studies, those who seek semichah are typically not required to have completed

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2728-460: A substitute fee to replace their lost earnings when they had to leave work to perform a rabbinic function ( sekhar battalah ). During the period of the Geonim ( c.  650 –1050 CE), opinions on compensation shifted. It was deemed inappropriate for the leaders of the Jewish community to appear in the marketplace as laborers or vendors of merchandise, and leading a Jewish community was becoming

2852-498: A teacher on central matters within Judaism. More broadly speaking, it is also an issue of being a worthy successor to a sacred legacy. As a result, there have always been greater or lesser disputes about the legitimacy and authority of rabbis. Historical examples include Samaritans and Karaites . The divisions between Jewish denominations may have their most pronounced manifestation on whether rabbis from one denomination recognize

2976-442: A university education. Exceptions exist, such as Yeshiva University , which requires all rabbinical students to complete an undergraduate degree before entering the program, and a Masters or equivalent before ordination. Historically, women could not become Orthodox rabbis. Starting in 2009, some Modern Orthodox institutions began ordaining women with the title of " Maharat ", and later with titles including "Rabbah" and "Rabbi". This

3100-617: A valid claim towards Judaism, whereas Conservative and Orthodox maintain the position expressed in the Talmud and Codes that one can be a Jew only through matrilineality (born of a Jewish mother) or through conversion to Judaism . University Heights, Bronx University Heights is a neighborhood of the West Bronx in New York City . Its boundaries, starting from the north and moving clockwise, are: West Fordham Road to

3224-435: A whole. The 46th Precinct has a lower crime rate than in the 1990s, with crimes across all categories having decreased by 74.6% between 1990 and 2022. The precinct reported 17 murders, 34 rapes, 384 robberies, 729 felony assaults, 218 burglaries, 611 grand larcenies, and 219 grand larcenies auto in 2022. University Heights is located near two New York City Fire Department (FDNY) fire stations. Engine Co. 43/Ladder Co. 59

3348-488: Is a shortened form of rebbe that can be used by, or applied to, any married Jewish male as the situation applies. Note: A rebbetzin (a Yiddish usage common among Ashkenazim ) or a rabbanit (in Hebrew and used among Sephardim ) is the official "title" used for, or by, the wife of any Orthodox, Haredi, or Hasidic rabbi. Rebbetzin may also be used as the equivalent of Reb and is sometimes abbreviated as such as well. Conservative Judaism confers semikhah after

3472-521: Is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism . One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as semikha —following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud . The basic form of the rabbi developed in the Pharisaic (167 BCE–73 CE) and Talmudic (70–640 CE) eras, when learned teachers assembled to codify Judaism's written and oral laws. The title "rabbi"

3596-463: Is also a commandment for teachers and rabbis to honor their students. Rabbis and Torah scholars, in order to ensure discipline within the Jewish community, have the authority to place individuals who insult them under a ban of excommunication. The first recorded examples of ordination are Moses transmitting his authority to Joshua and the 70 elders. Similarly, Elijah transmitted his authority to Elisha . According to Pirkei Avot , ordination

3720-457: Is also possible to engage in the rabbinate part-time, e.g. at a synagogue with a small membership; the rabbi's salary will be proportionate to the services rendered and he or she will likely have additional employment outside the synagogue. The practical basis for rabbinic authority involves the acceptance of the rabbinic individual and their scholarly credentials. In practical terms, Jewish communities and individuals commonly proffer allegiance to

3844-538: Is called in the Bible "Ezra, the priest, the scribe, a scribe of the words of God's commandments and of His statutes unto Israel." "Rabbi" as a title does not appear in the Hebrew Bible, though later rabbinic sources occasionally use it as a title for wise Biblical figures. With the destruction of the two Temples in Jerusalem , the end of the Jewish monarchy, and the decline of the dual institutions of prophets and

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3968-510: Is covered by ZIP Codes 10453 south of Hall of Fame Terrace and 10468 north of Hall of Fame Terrace. The United States Postal Service operates the Morris Heights Station post office at 2024 Jerome Avenue. University Heights and Fordham generally have a lower rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city as of 2018 . While 10% of residents age 25 and older have a college education or higher, 34% have less than

4092-454: Is currently a contested issue for many Orthodox institutions, leading some to seek alternate clerical titles and roles for women (see Women rabbis and Torah scholars § Orthodox Judaism , Toanot Rabniyot , and Yoetzet Halacha ). While some Haredi (including Hasidic ) yeshivas do grant official ordination to many students wishing to become rabbis, most of the students within the yeshivas engage in learning Torah or Talmud without

4216-402: Is first recorded among Ashkenazim with Meir ben Baruch Halevi (late 14th century), who issued the formal title Moreinu (our teacher) to scholars, though it likely existed somewhat earlier. By the 15th century, this formal ordination (known as semicha ) became necessary in order to be recognized as a rabbi. Initially some Sephardic communities objected to such formal ordination, but over time

4340-476: Is hand-wrought iron and the whole design is symbolic." These gates were presented on September 26, 1934, by Mrs. Frieda and Mr. Felix M. Warburg in memory of her parents, Jacob H. and Therese Schiff. In April 1966 JTS's library caught fire. 70,000 books were destroyed, and many others were damaged. Gerson D. Cohen became Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary in 1972. Prominent faculty during Cohen's chancellorship included David Weiss Halivni of

4464-427: Is higher than the city average of 14% of residents being smokers. In University Heights and Fordham, 34% of residents are obese , 16% are diabetic , and 27% have high blood pressure —compared to the citywide averages of 24%, 11%, and 28% respectively. In addition, 24% of children are obese, compared to the citywide average of 20%. Seventy-eight percent of residents eat some fruits and vegetables every day, which

4588-631: Is less than the city's average of 87%. In 2018, 67% of residents described their health as "good", "very good", or "excellent", lower than the city's average of 78%. For every supermarket in University Heights and Fordham, there are 20 bodegas . The nearest hospitals are Bronx-Lebanon Hospital Center in Claremont, James J. Peters VA Medical Center in Kingsbridge Heights , and St Barnabas Hospital in Belmont . University Heights

4712-517: Is located at 1901 Sedgwick Avenue, while Engine Co. 75/Ladder Co. 33/Battalion 19 is located at 2175 Walton Avenue. As of 2018 , preterm births and births to teenage mothers are more common in University Heights and Fordham than in other places citywide. In University Heights and Fordham, there were 93 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 35.3 births to teenage mothers per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide). University Heights and Fordham has

4836-585: Is lower than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are youth and middle-aged adults: 28% are between the ages of between 0–17, 29% between 25 and 44, and 23% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 12% and 8% respectively. As of 2017, the median household income in Community District 5 was $ 30,166. In 2018, an estimated 34% of University Heights and Fordham residents lived in poverty, compared to 25% in all of

4960-432: Is more than the rest of New York City. In University Heights and Fordham, 30% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year , higher than the citywide average of 20%. Additionally, 66% of high school students in University Heights and Fordham graduate on time, lower than the citywide average of 75%. Public schools include: In the past, the neighborhood had two parochial schools, operated by

5084-447: Is no hierarchy and no central authority in Judaism that either supervises rabbinic education or records ordinations; each branch of Judaism regulates the ordination of the rabbis affiliated with it. The most common formula used on a certificate of semikhah is Yore yore ("He may teach, he may teach", sometimes rendered as a question and answer, "May he teach? He may teach."). Most Rabbis hold this qualification; they are sometimes called

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5208-610: Is now the Albert A. List College of Jewish Studies , and the graduate division is the William Davidson Graduate School of Jewish Education. In 1915, Schechter was succeeded by Cyrus Adler , the President of Dropsie College . A member of the board with impressive academic qualifications, he was initially seen as an interim replacement for Schechter. Adler went on to serve as President until 1940. During

5332-772: Is patrolled by the New York City Police Department 's 46th Precinct. NYCHA property in the area is patrolled by P.S.A. 7 at 737 Melrose Avenue in the Melrose section of the Bronx. The neighborhood takes its name from the hill on which New York University 's Bronx campus was built in 1894. The campus includes the Hall of Fame for Great Americans . Although NYU sold the campus to the City University of New York to house Bronx Community College in 1973,

5456-477: Is the primary educational and religious center of Conservative Judaism. The single largest physical addition to JTS came in the form of seventeen-foot wrought iron gates. The beautifully constructed gates led to the main entrance through a large vaulted passageway to the entire group of buildings. In a 1930s guidebook, it is written about the Seminary, "Be sure to notice the main gate to the seminary as you go in. It

5580-529: The Tur . Building on this, is the study of those sections of the Shulchan Aruch (codified Jewish law)—together with its main commentaries —that pertain to daily-life questions (such as the laws of keeping kosher , Shabbat , and the laws of family purity ). An element of shimush , or "apprenticeship", is often also required. Religious Zionist and Modern Orthodox rabbinical students, such as those at

5704-503: The Hesder yeshivot and Yeshiva University respectively, additionally formally study hashkafa , i.e. the major elements of theology and philosophy and their application to contemporary questions, proceeding systematically through the classical rabbinic works here ; other students will have studied these works independently (see Yeshiva § Ethics, mysticism and philosophy ). The entrance requirements for an Orthodox yeshiva include

5828-670: The Mishnaic Hebrew construct רְבִּי ‎ rǝbbī , meaning "Master [Name]"; the standard Hebrew noun is רב ‎ rav "master". רב ‎ rav is also used as a title for rabbis, as are rabbeinu ("our master") and ha-rav ("the master"). See also Rav and Rebbe . The Hebrew root in turn derives from the Semitic root ר-ב-ב ‎ (R-B-B), which in Biblical Aramaic means "great" in many senses, including "revered", but appears primarily as

5952-452: The NYPD , located at 2120 Ryer Avenue. The 46th Precinct ranked 27th safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. As of 2018 , with a non-fatal assault rate of 126 per 100,000 people, University Heights and Fordham's rate of violent crimes per capita is greater than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 1,033 per 100,000 people is higher than that of the city as

6076-733: The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York . They have both closed, leaving no local parochial schools. In the early- to mid-20th century, University Heights had a significant Jewish population, with a number of large synagogues. The Akiba Academy functioned from 1947 to 1970 out of the Hebrew Institute of University Heights building at 1835 University Avebue, now the Kips Bay Boys and Girls Club building. In 1968, it merged with two other Jewish day schools to form Salanter Akiba Riverdale Academy , and moved to

6200-608: The Sanhedrin in the first century. Early recipients of the title rabbi include Rabbi Zadok and Rabbi Eliezer ben Jacob , beginning in the time of the disciples of Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai . The title "Rabbi" occurs (in Greek transliteration ῥαββί rabbi ) in the books of Matthew , Mark , and John in the New Testament , where it is used in reference to "Scribes and Pharisees " as well as to Jesus . According to some,

6324-610: The Syriac word ܪܒܝ rabi . Some communities, especially Sephardic and Yemenite Jews , historically pronounced the title רִבִּי ‎ rībbī ; this pronunciation competed with רְבִּי ‎ rǝbbī and רַבִּי rabbī in Ashkenaz until the modern period. Rabbi is not an occupation found in the Hebrew Bible , and ancient generations did not employ related titles such as Rabban , Rabbi , or Rav to describe either

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6448-551: The 1920s, Adler explored the possibility of a merger with Yeshiva University , but the Orthodox leaders of Yeshiva University viewed JTS as insufficiently Orthodox. New faculty appointed during the early part of Adler's tenure included the Biblical scholar Jacob Hoschander . In the 1920s, Boaz Cohen and Louis Finkelstein , both of whom were ordained at JTS and completed their doctoral degrees at Columbia University , joined

6572-684: The 1950s with Finkelstein's development of JTS's Institute for Religious Studies and the establishment of its Herbert H. Lehman Institute of Ethics. During the Finkelstein era, the Institute for Religious and Social Studies brought together Protestant, Roman Catholic and Jewish scholars for theological discussions. (In 1986, the name of the institute was changed to the Finkelstein Institute for Religious and Social Studies in Finkelstein's honor.) In 1957, JTS announced plans to build

6696-490: The Babylonian sages or the sages in Israel. For example, Hillel I and Shammai (the religious leaders of the early first century) had no rabbinic title prefixed to their names. The titles "Rabban" and "Rabbi" are first mentioned in Jewish literature in the Mishnah . Rabban was first used for Rabban Gamaliel the elder , Rabban Simeon his son , and Rabban Yohanan ben Zakkai , all of whom were patriarchs or presidents of

6820-515: The Bronx and 20% in all of New York City. One in eight residents (13%) were unemployed, compared to 13% in the Bronx and 9% in New York City. Rent burden, or the percentage of residents who have difficulty paying their rent, is 65% in University Heights and Fordham, compared to the boroughwide and citywide rates of 58% and 51% respectively. Based on this calculation, as of 2018 , University Heights and Fordham are considered low-income relative to

6944-623: The Humanities with the Graduate School of the Jewish Theological Seminary, which brought together JTS's non-theological academic training programs. Cohen appointed historian Ismar Schorsch as the first dean of the Graduate School. Beginning in the 1970s, the topic of women's ordination was regularly discussed at JTS. Women who unsuccessfully sought admission to the rabbinical school during the 1970s included Susannah Heschel , daughter of JTS faculty member Abraham Joshua Heschel . There

7068-578: The Humanities, which conferred bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees. The Institute was designed as a non-sectarian academic institute which would train future college and university professors. Its first students enrolled in 1970. The Institute later evolved into the Graduate School of the Jewish Theological Seminary. When Finkelstein took office, prominent faculty members included Louis Ginzberg , Alexander Marx , Mordecai Kaplan , H.L. Ginsberg , Robert Gordis , and Boaz Cohen . In 1940, Finkelstein made his most significant academic appointment, hiring

7192-698: The Jewish Philosophy department and became head of JTS's Louis Finkelstein Institute for Religious and Social Studies. The number of advanced programs in the Graduate School grew over the course of Schorsch's tenure. The Graduate School came to describe itself as being "the most extensive academic program in advanced Judaica in North America." Gordon Tucker 's tenure as dean of the Rabbinical School ended in 1992. His predecessor, Joel Roth , again became dean, serving in 1992–1993. Roth

7316-532: The Jewish Theological Seminary in 1940. During his chancellorship, JTS made significant efforts to engage the American public. One of its signature programs was a radio and television show called The Eternal Light . The show aired on Sunday afternoons, featuring well-known Jewish personalities like Chaim Potok and Elie Wiesel . Broadcasts did not involve preaching or prayer, but drew on history, literature and social issues to explore Judaism and Jewish holidays in

7440-569: The Jewish community. Hence their functions vary as the needs of the Jewish community vary over time and from place to place. In antiquity those who performed rabbinic functions, such as judging a case or teaching Torah to students, did not receive compensation for their services. Being a rabbi was not a full-time profession and those who served had other occupations to support themselves and their families, such as woodchopper, sandal-maker, carpenter, water-carrier, farmer and tanner. A respected scholar, Rabbi Zadok (1st cent. CE), had said "never to use

7564-529: The Land of Israel. Sherira Gaon summarized the relationship between these titles as follows: "Rabbi is greater than Rav, Rabban is greater than Rabbi, one's name is greater than Rabban". However, some modern scholars argue that "Rabbi" and "Rav" are the same title, pronounced differently due to variations in dialect. After the suppression of the Patriarchate and Sanhedrin by Theodosius II in 425, there

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7688-599: The Mirrer Yeshiva (in Brooklyn and Jerusalem ), do not have an official "semichah/rabbinical program" to train rabbis, but provide semichah on an "as needed" basis if and when one of their senior students is offered a rabbinical position but only with the approval of their rosh yeshivas . Haredim will often prefer using Hebrew names for rabbinic titles based on older traditions, such as: Rav (denoting "rabbi"), HaRav ("the rabbi"), Moreinu HaRav ("our teacher

7812-536: The Modern Orthodox community, many rabbis still mainly deal with teaching and questions of Jewish law, but many are increasingly dealing with these same pastoral functions. Traditionally, rabbis have never been an intermediary between God and humans. This idea was traditionally considered outside the bounds of Jewish theology . Unlike spiritual leaders in many other faiths, they are not considered to be imbued with special powers or abilities. Rabbis serve

7936-524: The Talmud Department and José Faur . Both of these scholars resigned when the JTS faculty voted to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors in 1983. Yochanan Muffs , who had joined the JTS faculty in 1954, was a prominent professor of Bible . Max Kadushin , who had joined the JTS faculty in 1960, taught ethics and rabbinic thought until his death in 1980. In 1972, Cohen appointed Avraham Holtz as

8060-597: The Talmud and Rabbinics department during Schorsch's chancellorship included Joel Roth , Mayer Rabinowitz , David C. Kraemer and Judith Hauptman . Hauptman was the first woman appointed to teach Talmud at JTS. The Bible department included David Marcus and Stephen A. Geller . The Jewish literature Department included David G. Roskies . The Jewish history department included Jack Wertheimer and Shuly Rubin Schwartz . The Jewish Philosophy department included Neil Gillman and Shaul Magid . In 2004, Alan Mittleman joined

8184-578: The Talmud faculty. In the 1930s, Adler appointed H.L. Ginsberg , Robert Gordis , and Alexander Sperber as professors of Bible. He also gave appointments to Israel Efros , Simon Greenberg , Milton Steinberg , and Ismar Elbogen . During his tenure, Adler groomed Louis Finkelstein as his chosen successor. In 1931, he appointed Finkelstein to a full professorship. Finkelstein became the Solomon Schechter Professor of Theology. In 1937 Adler appointed Finkelstein as Provost. In 1930

8308-636: The Torah as a spade for digging," and this was understood to mean never to use one's Torah knowledge for an inappropriate purpose, such as earning a fee. Still, as honored members of the community, Torah sages were allowed a series of privileges and exemptions that alleviated their financial burdens somewhat. These included such things as tax exemption from communal levies, marketplace priority (first in, first out regarding their trade), receiving personal services from their students ( shimush talmedei hakhamim ), silent business partnerships with wealthy merchants, and

8432-470: The association became precarious, and Mendes did not have the resources to turn it around. In October 1901, a new organization was projected entitled the "Jewish Theological Seminary of America", with which the association was invited to incorporate. This arrangement was carried into effect April 14, 1902. The new organization was endowed with a fund of over $ 500,000, and was presented with a suitable building on University Heights by Jacob H. Schiff. It obtained

8556-465: The authority of the rabbi they have chosen. Such a rabbinic leader is sometimes called the "Master of the Locale" ( mara d'atra ). Jewish individuals may acknowledge the authority of others but will defer legal decisions to the mara d'atra . The rabbi derives authority from achievements within a meritocratic system. Rabbis' authority is neither nominal nor spiritual—it is based on credentials. Typically

8680-406: The community. However, Hasidic communities do not have a mere rabbi: they have a Rebbe , who plays a similar role but is thought to have a special connection to God. The Rebbes' authority, then, is based on a spiritual connection to God and so they are venerated in a different way from rabbis. According to the Talmud, it is a commandment ( mitzvah ) to honor a rabbi and a Torah scholar, along with

8804-609: The completion of a learning program in a yeshiva or modern rabbinical seminary or under the guidance of an individual rabbi. The exact course of study varies by denomination, but most are in the range of 3–6 years. The programs all include study of Talmud, the codes of Jewish law and responsa to a greater or lesser extent, depending on the branch of Judaism. In addition to rabbinical literature, modern seminaries offer courses in pastoral subjects such as counseling, education, comparative religion and delivering sermons. Most rabbinical students will complete their studies in their mid-20s. There

8928-510: The completion of a program in the codes of Jewish law and responsa in keeping with Jewish tradition. In addition to knowledge and mastery of the study of Talmud and halakhah , Conservative semikhah also requires that its rabbinical students receive intensive training in Tanakh , classical biblical commentaries, biblical criticism , Midrash , Kabbalah and Hasidut , the historical development of Judaism from antiquity to modernity, Jewish ethics,

9052-512: The completion of an undergraduate university degree. In accordance with national collegiate accreditation requirements, Conservative rabbinical students earn a Master of Arts in Rabbinic Literature in addition to receiving ordination. See List of rabbinical schools § Conservative In Reform Judaism rabbinic studies are mandated in pastoral care, the historical development of Judaism, academic biblical criticism, in addition to

9176-657: The creation of the United Synagogue of America , as a formal group for member synagogues who subscribed to his philosophy. The group was strongly aligned with JTS from its creation to the present day. Along with Schechter and Bernard Drachman , professors at the seminary at the time included: Louis Ginzberg , professor of Talmud; Alexander Marx , professor of history and rabbinical literature and librarian ; Israel Friedländer , professor of Bible ; Joseph Mayor Asher , professor of homiletics; and Joshua A. Joffe, instructor in Talmud. In 1905, Israel Davidson joined

9300-531: The curriculum and philosophy of the new school after Rabbi Frankel's seminary. The first graduate to be ordained, in 1894, was Joseph Hertz , who would go on to become the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth . Morais served as the president of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America until his death in 1897. After Morais's death, Mendes led the school, but the financial position of

9424-685: The dean of academic development. Neil Gillman served as Dean of the JTS Rabbinical School for much of the Cohen chancellorship. Morton Leifman served as Dean of the Cantors Institute. Cohen oversaw the appointment of Judith Hauptman as the first female professor of Talmud at JTS. Hauptman began teaching at JTS in 1973. Joel Roth , who had begun teaching at JTS in 1968, was appointed Associate Professor of Talmud upon completing his Ph.D. at JTS in 1973. Roth went on to serve as

9548-472: The dean of the Rabbinical School from 1981 to 1984. He was succeeded by Gordon Tucker , who became dean of the Rabbinical School in 1984. In June 1973, the Seminary's Institute for Advanced Studies in the Humanities was granted permission to grant Ph.D. degrees in Jewish History , Bible , Talmud , Jewish philosophy , and Hebrew . In 1975, the Seminary replaced the Institute for Advanced Studies in

9672-470: The elderly, as it is written in Leviticus 19:32, "Rise up before the elderly, and honor the aged." One should stand in their presence and address them with respect. Kohanim (priests) are required to honor rabbis and Torah scholars like the general public. However, if one is more learned than the rabbi or the scholar there is no need to stand. The spouse of a Torah scholar must also be shown deference. It

9796-504: The elementary school or yeshivah, publishing books, arbitrating civil litigations, or even serving as a matchmaker. With the formation of rabbinical seminaries starting in the nineteenth century, the rabbinate experienced a degree of professionalization that is still underway. At the present time, an ordained graduate of a rabbinical seminary that is affiliated with one of the modern branches of Judaism, Reform, Conservative, Reconstructionist, or modern Orthodox, will find employment—whether as

9920-567: The emergence of Karaism , Jews who still followed the Talmudic traditions became known as "rabbanites". Initially communities might have a religious judge appointed by the central geonate , often possessing a certification known as pitka dedayanuta or bearing the title chaver (short for chaver besanhedrin hagedolah , used in Israel) or aluf (used in Babylonia). By the 11th century, as

10044-503: The faculty, teaching Hebrew and Rabbinics . According to David Ellenson and Lee Bycel, "each of these men was a distinguished scholar, and the academic reputation of the Seminary soared with the addition of these men to the faculty. ... Schechter was determined to carve out the highest academic reputation for the Seminary." The rabbinical school had very high academic standards. The curriculum focused especially on Talmud , legal codes , and classical rabbinic literature , but aside from

10168-399: The first principal of the Teachers Institute (TI), which opened in 1909. A majority of TI students were women, both because teaching was seen as a women's profession and because the Teachers Institute was one of the only institutions where women could obtain an advanced education in Jewish studies. The Teachers Institute offered both undergraduate and graduate degrees. The undergraduate division

10292-484: The first women ordained as cantors by JTS (and the first female Conservative Jewish cantors in the world.) They were both ordained in 1987. Ismar Schorsch became Chancellor of JTS in 1986. Among his accomplishments was creating the William Davidson Graduate School of Jewish Education, which was established through an endowment by William Davidson of Detroit in 1994. Michael Greenbaum served as Vice Chancellor of The Jewish Theological Seminary. Prominent faculty in

10416-465: The geonate weakened it was common for Jewish communities to elect a local spiritual authority. In the 11th–12th century, some local rabbinic authorities in Spain received formal certification known as ketav masmich or ketav minui in preparation for their leadership role. Maimonides ruled that every congregation is obliged to appoint a preacher and scholar to admonish the community and teach Torah, and

10540-427: The goal of becoming rabbis or holding any official positions. The curriculum for obtaining ordination as rabbis for Haredi scholars is the same as described above for all Orthodox students wishing to obtain the official title of "Rabbi" and to be recognized as such. Within the Hasidic world, the positions of spiritual leadership are dynastically transmitted within established families, usually from fathers to sons, while

10664-473: The halakhic methodology of Conservative responsa , classical and modern works of Jewish theology and philosophy, synagogue administration, pastoral care , chaplaincy , non-profit management, and navigating the modern world in a Jewish context. Entrance requirements to Conservative rabbinical study centers include a background within Jewish law and liturgy, familiarity with rabbinic literature , Talmud, etc., ritual observance according to Conservative halakha, and

10788-406: The ideal. But circumstances had changed. Jewish communities required full-time rabbis, and the rabbis themselves preferred to spend their days studying and teaching Torah rather than working at a secular trade. By the fifteenth century it was the norm for Jewish communities to compensate their rabbis, although the rabbi's contract might well refer to a "suspension fee" ( sekhar battalah ) rather than

10912-834: The large Jewish denominations; these are the Academy for Jewish Religion in New York City, AJR in California , ALEPH Ordination Program, the Jewish Renewal Seminary online, Hebrew College in Boston, and Hebrew Seminary in Illinois . The structure and curricula here are largely as at other non-Orthodox yeshivot. More recently established are several non-traditional, and nondenominational (also called "transdenominational" or "postdenominational") seminaries. These grant semicha with lesser requirements re time, and with

11036-538: The law in the same historical fashion in which Judaism has always historically developed. The Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) was founded in 1886 through the efforts of two distinguished rabbis, Sabato Morais and Henry Pereira Mendes , along with a group of prominent lay leaders from Sephardic congregations in Philadelphia and New York. Its mission was to preserve the knowledge and practice of historical Judaism. In 1887, JTS held its first class of ten students in

11160-535: The legitimacy or authority of rabbis in another. As a general rule within Orthodoxy and among some in the Conservative movement, rabbis are reluctant to accept the authority of other rabbis whose Halakhic standards are not as strict as their own. In some cases, this leads to an outright rejection of even the legitimacy of other rabbis; in others, the more lenient rabbi may be recognized as a spiritual leader of

11284-428: The majority of which are of Dominican and Puerto Rican descent. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census , the population of University Heights and Morris Heights was 54,188, a change of −147 (−0.3%) from the 54,335 counted in 2000 . Covering an area of 484.32 acres (196.00 ha), the neighborhood had a population density of 111.9 inhabitants per acre (71,600/sq mi; 27,700/km ). The racial makeup of

11408-637: The more radical changes, but was open to moderate changes that would not break with significant traditional. After the Reform movement published the Pittsburgh Platform in late 1885, Morais recognized the futility of his efforts and began to work with like-minded rabbis to strengthen the Orthodox institutions. One of the tools his group used was the creation of a new rabbinical school in New York City . The "Jewish Theological Seminary Association"

11532-618: The nascent movement of Conservative Judaism . Many of the Orthodox rabbis associated with JTS vehemently disagreed with him, and left the institution. About 100 days after Schechter's appointment, the Agudath Harabbonim formed, principally in protest, and declared that they would not accept any new ordinations from JTS, though previous recipients were still welcome. The more moderate Orthodox Union (OU), however, maintained some ties to JTS, and some of its rabbis, including Drachman, continued to teach there. In 1913, Schechter directed

11656-560: The neighborhood name has endured. The New York Times quoted the Encyclopedia of New York City as saying that NYU "dominated the neighborhood", since much of University Heights was filled with dormitories and other residential buildings for NYU. With the opening of the New York City Subway 's IRT Jerome Avenue Line in 1917, the neighborhood began a rapid transition from a one-time farm community that had become

11780-516: The neighborhood was 1.4% (760) White , 31.8% (17,219) African American , 0.2% (106) Native American , 1.3% (688) Asian , 0% (11) Pacific Islander , 0.3% (158) from other races , and 0.8% (424) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 64.3% (34,822) of the population. The entirety of Community District 5, which comprises University Heights and Fordham, had 136,151 inhabitants as of NYC Health 's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 79.9 years. This

11904-538: The next, in spite of warnings from conservative friends such as Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport . He withdrew from the assembly, held in Frankfurt am Main in 1845, making a final break with the Reform camp after coming to regard their positions as excessively radical. In 1854 he became the director of a new rabbinical school, the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau . Rabbi Bernard Drachman ,

12028-636: The north, Jerome Avenue to the east, West Burnside Avenue to the south and the Harlem River to the west. University Avenue is the primary thoroughfare in University Heights. The neighborhood is mostly part of Bronx Community Board 5 , with a small portion in Community Board 7 . Its ZIP Codes include 10453 and 10468. The nearest subway is the IRT Jerome Avenue Line ( 4 train), operating along Jerome Avenue . The area

12152-539: The organization commissioned a new headquarters for 122nd Street and Broadway in a neo-colonial style, with a tower at the corner. The architects were Gehron, Ross and Alley. In 1931, the Seminary College of Jewish Studies was established for students who wanted college-level courses in Jewish studies but who were not preparing for teaching careers. This branch is now part of the Albert A. List College of Jewish Studies . Louis Finkelstein became chancellor of

12276-525: The priesthood, the focus of scholarly and spiritual leadership within the Jewish people shifted to the sages of the Men of the Great Assembly ( Anshe Knesset HaGedolah ). This assembly was composed of the earliest group of "rabbis" in the more modern sense of the word, in large part because they began the formulation and explication of what became known as Judaism's " Oral Law " ( Torah SheBe'al Peh ). This

12400-513: The program is effectively post-graduate , comprising two years on average, following at least four years' yeshiva study. In achieving semikhah , rabbinical students work to gain knowledge in specific and relevant Talmudic sugyas , and their development in the Rishonim and Acharonim (early and late medieval commentators), leading to their application in Halakha —particularly as traced by

12524-918: The prominent Talmud scholar Saul Lieberman as Professor of Palestinian Literature and Institutions. In 1948, Lieberman became dean of the Rabbinical School. In 1958, he was named rector of the Seminary. In 1945, Finkelstein hired the theologian Abraham Joshua Heschel , who had been teaching for a brief period at Hebrew Union College . During the course of his chancellorship, Finkelstein also gave academic appointments to other prominent scholars including Moshe Davis (1942), Shalom Spiegel (1943), Yochanan Muffs (1954), Max Kadushin (1960), Gerson Cohen , David Weiss Halivni , Judah Goldin , Chaim Dimitrovsky , and Seymour Siegel . Finkelstein appointed Max Arzt to serve as Vice-Chancellor of JTS in 1951, and he appointed Arzt as Israel Goldstein Professor of Practical Theology in 1962. The Jewish Theological Seminary, JTS,

12648-547: The rabbi in some respects became increasingly similar to the duties of other clergy, like the Protestant Christian minister , and the title " pulpit rabbis" appeared to describe this phenomenon. Sermons , pastoral counseling, representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance. Non-Orthodox rabbis, on a day-to-day business basis, now spend more time on these functions than they do teaching or answering questions on Jewish law and philosophy. Within

12772-400: The rabbi receives an institutional stamp of approval. It is this authority that allows them to engage in the halakhic process and make legal prescriptions. The same pattern is true within broader communities, ranging from Hasidic communities to rabbinical or congregational organizations: there will be a formal or de facto structure of rabbinic authority that is responsible for the members of

12896-659: The rabbi"), Moreinu ("our teacher"), Moreinu VeRabeinu HaRav ("our teacher and our rabbi/master the rabbi"), Moreinu VeRabeinu ("our teacher and our rabbi/master"), Rosh yeshiva ("[the] head [of the] yeshiva"), Rosh HaYeshiva ("head [of] the yeshiva"), "Mashgiach" (for Mashgiach ruchani ) ("spiritual supervisor/guide"), Mora DeAsra ("teacher/decisor" [of] the/this place"), HaGaon ("the genius"), Rebbe ("[our/my] rabbi"), HaTzadik ("the righteous/saintly"), "ADMOR" ("Adoneinu Moreinu VeRabeinu") ("our master, our teacher and our rabbi/master") or often just plain Reb which

13020-402: The rest of the city and not gentrifying . University Heights consists of 5- and 6-story buildings, older multi-unit homes, newly constructed multi-unit townhouses and apartment buildings, and co-ops. The total land area is roughly one square mile. The terrain is elevated and hilly. There are many shops along Fordham Road . University Heights and Fordham are patrolled by the 46th Precinct of

13144-400: The school (and the first female Conservative Jewish rabbi in the world) was Amy Eilberg , who graduated and was ordained as a rabbi in 1985. The first class of female rabbis that was admitted to JTS in 1984 included Rabbi Naomi Levy , who later became a best-selling author and Nina Beth Cardin , who became an author and environmental activist. Erica Lippitz and Marla Rosenfeld Barugel were

13268-471: The social institution he describes is the germ of the modern congregational rabbinate. Until the Black Death , Ashkenazi communities typically made religious decisions by consensus of scholars on a council, rather than the decision of a single authority. In the 14th century, the concept arose of a single person who served as religious authority for particular area (the mara de'atra ). Formal ordination

13392-455: The study of traditional rabbinic texts. Rabbinical students also are required to gain practical rabbinic experience by working at a congregation as a rabbinic intern during each year of study from year one onwards. All Reform seminaries ordain women and openly LGBT people as rabbis and cantors . See List of rabbinical schools § Reform There are several possibilities for receiving rabbinic ordination in addition to seminaries maintained by

13516-468: The system became adopted by them too. A dramatic change in rabbinic functions occurred with Jewish emancipation . Tasks that were once the primary focus for rabbis, such as settling disputes by presiding over a Jewish court, became less prominent, while other tasks that were secondary, like delivering sermons, increased in importance. In 19th-century Germany and the United States, the duties of

13640-493: The title "rabbi" or "rabban" was first used after 70 CE to refer to Yochanan ben Zakkai and his students, and references in rabbinic texts and the New Testament to rabbis earlier in the 1st century are anachronisms or retroactive honorifics. Other scholars believe that the term "rabbi" was a well-known informal title by the beginning of the first century CE, and thus that the Jewish and Christian references to rabbis reflect

13764-584: The titles in fact used in this period. The governments of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah were based on a system that included the Jewish kings , the Jewish prophets, the legal authority of the high court of Jerusalem, the Great Sanhedrin , and the ritual authority of the priesthood . Members of the Sanhedrin had to receive their ordination ( semicha ) in an uninterrupted line of transmission from Moses , yet rather than being referred to as rabbis they were called priests or scribes, like Ezra, who

13888-501: The various Jewish denominations , there are different requirements for rabbinic ordination and differences in opinion regarding who is recognized as a rabbi. Non-Orthodox movements (i.e., the Conservative , Reform , Reconstructionist , and Renewal movements) have chosen to do so for what they view as halakhic reasons (Conservative Judaism) as well as ethical reasons (Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism). The word comes from

14012-567: The vestry of the Spanish-Portuguese Synagogue, New York City's oldest congregation. About this time in North America, the Reform movement was growing at a rapid pace, alarming more traditional ( halakhic ) Jews. Sabato Morais , rabbi of Philadelphia's Mikveh Israel , championed the reaction to American Reform . At one time Morais had been a voice for moderation and bridge-building within the Reformers. He had opposed

14136-500: Was a special commission appointed by the chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America ( Gerson D. Cohen ) to study the issue of ordaining women as rabbis, which met between 1977 and 1978, and consisted of 11 men and three women; the women were Marian Siner Gordon, an attorney, Rivkah Harris, an Assyriologist , and Francine Klagsbrun , a writer. After years of discussion, the JTS faculty voted to ordain women as rabbis and as cantors in 1983. The first female rabbi to graduate from

14260-568: Was at roughly the same time that the other established American Jewish seminaries, Hebrew Union College and Yeshiva University , opened cantorial schools. Prior to this time, American cantors were often trained in Europe. In 1950, Finkelstein created the Universal Brotherhood program, which "brought together laymen interested in interpreting the ethical dimensions of Judaism to the wider society." JTS expanded its public outreach in

14384-613: Was drawn up by Moshe Davis and Sylvia Ettenberg of the JTS Teachers' Institute. In 1945, JTS established a new institution, the Leadership Training Fellowship, designed to educate young people within Conservative synagogues and guide them into Jewish public service. In 1952, the Jewish Theological Seminary opened a new school known as the Cantors Institute. (The school was later renamed the H. L. Miller Cantorial School and College of Jewish Music.) This

14508-579: Was eventually encoded and codified within the Mishnah and Talmud and subsequent rabbinical scholarship, leading to what is known as Rabbinic Judaism . The traditional explanation is that from the 1st to 5th centuries, the title "Rabbi" was given to those sages of the Land of Israel who received formal ordination ( semicha ), while the lesser title "Rav" was given to sages who taught in the Babylonian academies , as ordination could not be performed outside

14632-404: Was first used in the first century CE. In more recent centuries, the duties of a rabbi became increasingly influenced by the duties of the Protestant Christian minister , hence the title " pulpit rabbis", and in 19th-century Germany and the United States rabbinic activities including sermons , pastoral counseling, and representing the community to the outside, all increased in importance. Within

14756-437: Was founded with Morais as its President in 1886 as an Orthodox institution to combat the hegemony of the Reform movement. The school was hosted by Rabbi Henry Pereira Mendes ' Congregation Shearith Israel , a sister synagogue to Mikveh Israel. Morais and Mendes were soon joined by Alexander Kohut and Bernard Drachman , both of whom had received semicha (rabbinic ordination) at Rabbi Frankel's Breslau seminary. They shaped

14880-423: Was no more formal ordination in the strict sense. A recognised scholar could be called Rav or Hacham , like the Babylonian sages. The transmission of learning from master to disciple remained of tremendous importance, but there was no formal rabbinic qualification as such. In the early Middle Ages "rabbi" was not a formal title, but was used as a term of respect for Jews of great scholarship and reputation. After

15004-490: Was opened on Sept. 15, 1902, in the old building of the Theological Seminary Association at 736 Lexington Avenue. A search was executed for a new president. Solomon Schechter was recruited from Great Britain. His religious approach seemed compatible with JTS's, and he assumed the presidency, as well as serving as Professor of Jewish theology. In a series of papers he articulated an ideology for

15128-470: Was renovated in 2007. The following MTA Regional Bus Operations bus routes serve University Heights: The following New York City Subway stations serve University Heights: The Metro-North Railroad 's Hudson Line also serves University Heights via the University Heights station . University Heights Bridge connects the neighborhood to Inwood, Manhattan over the Harlem River to

15252-603: Was succeeded by William Lebeau , who served as dean from 1993–1999. Lebeau was succeeded by Alan Kensky, and then Lebeau became dean of the Rabbinical School again in June 2002. In 1998, Henry Rosenblum was appointed Dean of the H.L. Miller Cantorial School and College of Jewish Music at the Jewish Theological Seminary in 1998, becoming the first Hazzan to hold that position. Rosenblum remained in this position until 2010. Rabbi A rabbi ( / ˈ r æ b aɪ / ; Hebrew : רַבִּי ‎ , romanized :  rabbī )

15376-635: Was transmitted without interruption from Moses to Joshua, to the elders, to the prophets, to the men of the Great Assembly , to the Zugot , to the Tannaim . The chain of semikhah was probably lost in the 4th or 5th century, though possibly as late as the 12th century. According to Maimonides (12th century), if it were possible to gather the greatest sages of the generation, a reconstituted court could confer classic semikhah or ordination. Since then,

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