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135-702: The CRCP was established by the Coral Reef Conservation Act 2000 and Presidential Executive Order 13089, in order to fulfil the NOAA's obligations under these statutes. The main role of the CRCP is to gather and present scientific information that coastal and marine resource managers and other decision-makers require, to address the various threats facing coral reef ecosystems in U.S. and surrounding waters. The CRCP's priority threats are climate change, unsustainable fishing practices and pollution. Monitoring

270-727: A consumer surplus benefit of about $ 14–20 billion, if societies chose to emit a lower level of greenhouse gases instead. These economic losses also have important political implications, as they fall disproportionately on developing countries where the reefs are located, namely in Southeast Asia and around the Indian Ocean. It would cost more for countries in these areas to respond to coral reef loss as they would need to turn to different sources of income and food, in addition to losing other ecosystem services such as ecotourism . A study completed by Chen et al. suggested that

405-653: A 29% loss of shallow water coral. The highest coral death and reef habitat loss was inshore and mid-shelf reefs around Cape Grenville and Princess Charlotte Bay. The IPCC's moderate warming scenarios (B1 to A1T, 2 °C by 2100, IPCC, 2007, Table SPM.3, p. 13 ) forecast that corals on the Great Barrier Reef are very likely to regularly experience summer temperatures high enough to induce bleaching. In 1996, Hawaii's first major coral bleaching occurred in Kaneohe Bay, followed by major bleaching events in

540-764: A cetacean sanctuary in the Ligurian Sea named the Pelagos Sanctuary for Mediterranean Marine Mammals . This sanctuary includes both national and international waters. Both the CBD and IUCN recommended a variety of management systems for use in a protected area system. They advocated that MPAs be seen as one of many "nodes" in a network of protected areas. The following are the most common management systems: Seasonal and temporary management —Activities, most critically fishing, are restricted seasonally or temporarily, e.g., to protect spawning/nursing grounds or to let

675-418: A clear and concise manner in order to inform communities and decision-makers. The CRCP operates an information database known as 'CoRIS', that provides public access to all coral reef data and information collected and managed by the NOAA. This information portal is a key function of the CRCP, making data accessible to all coral reef management decision-makers. CoRIS is made up of a number of databases including

810-399: A detrimental impact on its reproductive physiology. The purpose of this study was to investigate the survival of reef-building corals in their natural habitat, as coral reproduction is being hindered by the effects of climate change. Elevated sea water temperatures are the main cause of mass bleaching events. Sixty major episodes of coral bleaching have occurred between 1979 and 1990, with

945-466: A few days, Hurricane Mitch brought in stormy weather on 27 October but only reduced temperatures by 1 degree or less. During this time period, mass bleaching in the fore-reef and lagoon occurred. While some fore reef colonies suffered some damage, coral mortality in the lagoon was catastrophic. The most prevalent coral in the reefs Belize in 1998 was the lettuce coral, Agaricia tenuifolia . On 22 and 23 October, surveys were conducted at two sites and

1080-520: A forthcoming shift to a La Niña phase may offer some relief, regions such as Florida have already experienced complete die-offs in some reefs, where temperatures have risen to 101°F (38.3°C). Moreover, the Great Barrier Reef is undergoing its fifth extensive bleaching event since 2016, underscoring the persistent and serious risks these vital ecosystems face. Coral bleaching events and the subsequent loss of coral coverage often result in

1215-430: A large portion of the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions produced by human activity. Although this uptake helps regulate global warming, it is also changing the chemistry of the ocean in ways never seen before. Ocean acidification (OA) is the decline in seawater pH caused by absorption of anthropogenic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This decrease in seawater pH has a significant effect on marine ecosystems. According to

1350-465: A network of protected areas by 2010 within the jurisdiction of regional environmental protocols .It recommended establishing protected areas for 20 to 30% of the world's oceans by the goal date of 2012. The Convention on Biological Diversity considered these recommendations and recommended requiring countries to set up marine parks controlled by a central organization before merging them. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change agreed to

1485-537: A new question: can we condition corals, that are not from this area, in this manner and slowly introduce them to higher temperatures for short periods of time and make them more resilient against rising ocean temperatures. Certain mild bleaching events can cause coral to produce high concentrations of sun-screening pigments in order to shield themselves from further stress. Some of the pigments produced have pink, blue or purple hues, while others are strongly fluorescent . Production of these pigments by shallow-water corals

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1620-514: A notable feature of the western shoreline of the Gulf of Thailand. In 1998 and 2010, there were bleaching events in Thailand; the effects of both occurrences varied among coral species, with some exhibiting more resilience to the 2010 bleaching. In contrast to 1998, there was a more severe bleaching event in 2010. Thailand experienced a severe mass bleaching in 2010 which affected 70% of the coral in

1755-424: A notable increase in coral mortality. Moreover, mounting evidence suggests that bacteria associated with corals contribute to their ability to withstand thermal stress. Attempts have been undertaken to enhance coral resilience in the face of bleaching incidents. Since corals serve as the fundamental components of coral reefs, their decline significantly affects the endurance and composition of reefs directly affecting

1890-518: A number of external partners including state and territorial governments, academic institutions and non-government and intergovernmental organisations. The mission of the Coral Reef Conservation Program is outlined in the Coral Reef Conservation Act and can be summarised as to "protect, conserve and restore coral reef resources by maintaining healthy ecosystem functioning". The objectives of the program are consolidated into

2025-712: A number of studies on the impacts of climate change on coral reefs and the effectiveness of new management strategies. The article 'Climate-smart Design for Ecosystem Management' from the Environmental Management Journal, was partly funded by the CRCP and examines and assesses adaptation strategies for coral reefs. Coral bleaching Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. This loss of pigment can be caused by various stressors, such as changes in temperature, light, or nutrients. Bleaching occurs when coral polyps expel

2160-406: A phenomenon known as "colourful bleaching". As the zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy needs through products of photosynthesis, after expelling, the coral may begin to starve. Coral can survive short-term disturbances, but if the conditions that lead to the expulsion of the zooxanthellae persist, the coral's chances of survival diminish. In order to recover from bleaching,

2295-422: A phenomenon sometimes called 'colourful coral bleaching'. Increased sea surface temperature leads to the thinning of the epidermis and apoptosis of gastrodermis cells in the host coral. The reduction in apoptosis and gastrodermis is seen via epithelium , leading to up to a 50% loss in the concentration of symbionts over a short period of time. Under conditions of high temperature or increased light exposure,

2430-493: A popular fishing site and are an important source of income for fishers, especially small, local fisheries. As coral reef habitat decreases due to bleaching, reef associated fish populations also decrease, which affects fishing opportunities. A model from one study by Speers et al. calculated direct losses to fisheries from decreased coral cover to be around $ 49–69 billion, if human societies continue to emit high levels of greenhouse gases. But, these losses could be reduced for

2565-564: A preventive measure or to avoid direct disturbance to individual species. The degree to which environmental regulations affect shipping varies according to whether MPAs are located in territorial waters , exclusive economic zones , or the high seas . The law of the sea regulates these limits. Most MPAs have been located in territorial waters, where the appropriate government can enforce them. However, MPAs have been established in exclusive economic zones and in international waters . For example, Italy, France and Monaco in 1999 jointly established

2700-403: A range of protection levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve. At the 2004 Convention on Biological Diversity , the agency agreed to use " network " on a global level, while adopting system for national and regional levels. The network is a mechanism to establish regional and local systems, but carries no authority or mandate, leaving all activity within

2835-566: A rapidly reducing species recover. Multiple-use MPAs —These are the most common and arguably the most effective. These areas employ two or more protections. The most important sections get the highest protection, such as a no take zone and are surrounded with areas of lesser protections. Multiple-use MPAs can make use of very diverse fisheries regulations to balance fisheries extraction with nature protection. Community involvement and related approaches —Community-managed MPAs empower local communities to operate partially or completely independent of

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2970-526: A rise in the global disease outbreak among coral populations. This is due to the weakened state of the corals that makes them susceptible to infection caused by disease-carrying pathogens. Infectious bacteria of the species Vibrio shiloi are the bleaching agent of Oculina patagonica in the Mediterranean Sea , causing this effect by attacking the zooxanthellae. V. shiloi is infectious only during warm periods. Elevated temperature increases

3105-525: A significant threat on coral reef ecosystems by interrupting natural processes and functioning. Reducing this threat is another pillar under the objectives of the CRCP. The CRCP regulates and supports a number of watershed management initiatives including research to identify sources of pollution, conducting studies to understand the impacts of land-based sources of pollution on coral reefs and providing financial and technical assistance to partners' watershed management responses. A key partnership under this pillar

3240-569: A temperature change. Corals consistently exposed to low-stress levels may be more resistant to bleaching. Scientists believe that the oldest known bleaching was that of the Late Devonian (Frasnian/Famennian), also triggered by the rise of sea surface temperatures. It resulted in the demise of the largest coral reefs in the Earth's history. According to Clive Wilkinson of Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network of Townsville, Australia, in 1998

3375-655: Is a 100% no take zone. Related terms include; specially protected area (SPA), Special Area of Conservation (SAC), the United Kingdom's marine conservation zones (MCZs), or area of special conservation (ASC) etc. which each provide specific restrictions. Stressors that affect oceans include the impact of extractive industries , marine pollution , and changes to the ocean's chemistry ( ocean acidification ) resulting from elevated carbon dioxide levels, due to our greenhouse gas emissions (see also effects of climate change on oceans ). MPAs have been cited as

3510-722: Is also found in Sustainable Development Goal 14 (which is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity ) and which sets this 10% goal to a later date (2020). In 2017, the UN held the United Nations Ocean Conference aiming to find ways and urge for the implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 14. In that 2017 conference, it was clear that just between 3.6 and 5.7% of the world's oceans were protected, meaning another 6.4 to 4.3% of

3645-404: Is an effective means to obtain critical sociospatial information which includes data regarding the location of resources and the location of ecosystem related concerns, and is very useful information for a number of stakeholders involved in coastal ecosystem management including state and federal managers. Prior to the implementation of the program there was very little sociospatial data collected on

3780-579: Is equivalent to 27 million square kilometres, equivalent to the land areas of Russia and Canada combined, although some argue that the effective conservation zones (ones with the strictest regulations) occupy only 5% of the ocean area (about equivalent to the land area of Russia alone). Marine conservation zones, as with their terrestrial equivalents, vary in terms of rules and regulations. Few zones rule out completely any sort of human activity within their area, as activities such as fishing, tourism, and transport of essential goods and services by ship, are part of

3915-624: Is kept to 1.5 °C, increasing every other year to 2 °C. With the increase of coral bleaching events worldwide, National Geographic noted in 2017, "In the past three years, 25 reefs—which comprise three-fourths of the world's reef systems—experienced severe bleaching events in what scientists concluded was the worst-ever sequence of bleachings to date." In a study conducted on the Hawaiian mushroom coral Lobactis scutaria , researchers discovered that higher temperatures and elevated levels of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) had

4050-476: Is measured, and with the development of Degree Heating Week (DHW), the coral reef's thermal stress is monitored. Global coral bleaching is being detected earlier due to the satellite remote sensing of the rise of sea temperatures. It is necessary to monitor the high temperatures because coral bleaching events are affecting coral reef reproduction and normal growth capacity, as well as it weakening corals, eventually leading to their mortality. This system detected

4185-599: Is no defined long-term goal for conservation and ecological recovery and extraction of marine resources occurs, a region is not a marine protected area. "Marine protected area (MPA)" is a term for protected areas that include marine environment and biodiversity . Other definitions by the IUCN include (2010): Any area of the intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of

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4320-544: Is rich in wild life, including the green turtle and the Hawaiian monkfish, alongside 7,000 other species, and 14 million seabirds. In 2017 the Cook Islands passed the Marae Moana Act designating the whole of the country's marine exclusive economic zone , which has an area of 1.9 million square kilometers as a zone with the purpose of protecting and conserving the "ecological, biodiversity and heritage values of

4455-402: Is stimulated by blue light. When corals bleach, blue light inside the coral tissue increases greatly because it is no longer being absorbed by the photosynthetic pigments found inside the symbiotic algae, and is instead reflected by the white coral skeleton. This causes an increase in the production of the sun-screening pigments, making the bleached corals appear very colourful instead of white –

4590-624: Is the 'Watershed Partnership Initiative' with the U.S Coral Reef Task Force, which focuses on reducing land-based pollutants by implementing specific and integrated action responses. Watershed management includes the implementation of vegetated buffer protection along coasts, land conservation and the responsible treatment of wastewater. The success of the CRCP's ability to improve the sustainability of U.S. fisheries relies heavily on partnerships with relevant fishery management councils and agencies. There are two key strategies under this pillar, both of which involve cooperating with external partners. One of

4725-504: Is to continue to conduct and provide partners with the relevant information and data necessary to successfully initiate resilience-based management practices. In 2014, CRCP scientists, along with partners including the NOAA Coral Reef Watch, developed precise climate and bleaching thermal stress prediction tools. By anticipating stress events such as global bleaching outbreaks, managers can make proactive decisions to minimise

4860-686: The Andaman Sea . Between 30% and 95% of the bleached coral died. Acropora corals were dominant coral species of Indonesian reef system however they are extremely vulnerable to external stressors. A study was conducted to study effect of mass bleaching event in 2010 on Acropora . Post bleaching recovery is influenced by severity and frequency of the bleaching event. Research indicates that frequent moderate disturbances tend to affect Porites , while less frequent but stronger disturbances primarily impact Acropora . Consequently, Acropora demonstrates rapid regrowth in such instances. In 2017, there

4995-685: The Great Lakes . These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities. MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources. Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life . MPAs can provide economic benefits by supporting

5130-586: The Red Sea , Gulf of Aden and Mexico. To be truly representative of the ocean and its range of marine resources, marine conservation parks should encompass the great variety of ocean geological and geographical terrains, as these, in turn, influence the biosphere around them. As time progresses it would be strategically advantageous to develop parks that include oceanic features such as ocean ridges , ocean trenches , island arc systems, ocean seamounts , ocean plateaus , and abyssal plains , which occupy half

5265-795: The Ross Sea . Other large MPAs are in the Indian , Pacific , and Atlantic Oceans , in certain exclusive economic zones of Australia and overseas territories of France , the United Kingdom and the United States , with major (990,000 square kilometres (380,000 sq mi) or larger) new or expanded MPAs by these nations since 2012—such as Natural Park of the Coral Sea , Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , Coral Sea Commonwealth Marine Reserve and South Georgia and

5400-559: The United Nations Environment Programme , between 2014 and 2016, the longest recorded global bleaching events killed coral on an unprecedented scale. In 2016, bleaching of coral on the Great Barrier Reef killed 29 to 50 percent of the reef's coral. In 2017, the bleaching extended into the central region of the reef. The average interval between bleaching events has halved between 1980 and 2016. The world's most bleaching-tolerant corals can be found in

5535-406: The zooxanthellae ( dinoflagellates that are commonly referred to as algae ) that live inside their tissue, causing the coral to turn white. The zooxanthellae are photosynthetic , and as the water temperature rises, they begin to produce reactive oxygen species . This is toxic to the coral, so the coral expels the zooxanthellae. Since the zooxanthellae produce the majority of coral colouration,

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5670-444: The " system ". No take zones (NTZs), are areas designated in a number of the world's MPAs, where all forms of exploitation are prohibited and severely limits human activities. These no take zones can cover an entire MPA, or specific portions. For example, the 1,150,000 square kilometres (440,000 sq mi) Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , the world's largest MPA (and largest protected area of any type, land or sea),

5805-459: The 'NOAA Deep Sea Coral Data Portal', which provides access to data relating to deep sea coral and sponges. One of the CRCP's responsibilities as outlined in the Coral Reef Conservation Act is to build public awareness and knowledge on the importance of sustainable management of coral reefs. The CRCP has conducted a number of educational and training workshops, and has also distributed a range of educational material regarding coral reef management, to

5940-458: The 26 dominant species but declined for 5 other populations. Coral in the south Red Sea does not bleach despite summer water temperatures up to 34 °C (93 °F). Coral bleaching in the Red Sea is more common in the northern section of the reefs; the southern part of the reef has been plagued by coral-eating starfish, dynamite fishing and human impacts on the environment. In 1988, there

6075-603: The Antarctic Treaty and CCAMLR, make up part the broader system of international agreements called the Antarctic Treaty System. Since 1982, the CCAMLR meets annually to implement binding conservations measures like the creation of 'protected areas' at the suggestion of the convention's scientific committee. In 2009, the CCAMLR created the first 'high-seas' MPA entirely within international waters over

6210-475: The CRCP also financially supports a number of partners including institutions of higher education and not-for-profit organisations, by awarding grants to projects involved in coral reef ecosystem management and restoration. The program aims to fund at least $ 8 million in grants each year to partners involved in coral reef conservation management projects. In the 2018 Fiscal Year, the program contributed more than $ 26 million in funding towards coral reef projects across

6345-483: The CRCP assists federal partners interested in the sustainable management of fisheries, is by supporting effective implementation and management of marine protected areas . Marine protected areas are valuable tools for restoring overexploited ecosystems and protecting fisheries. The final pillar to the CRCP's strategy plan is the restoration of coral reef ecosystems. This involves supporting research of herbivore replenishment processes and collecting further data to support

6480-573: The CRCP's most significant contributions to the management of U.S. coral reef ecosystems is the development of a periodic, national-level assessment on the condition of U.S. coral reef areas. The CRCP partnered with the Integration and Application Network (IAN) at the University of Maryland Centre for Environmental Science (UMES) in forming 'status reports' to present the data collected from the periodic assessments. The status reports fulfil one of

6615-655: The CRCP's responsibilities, as mandated by the Coral Reef Conservation Act 2000, to build an 'integrated observing system' to monitor the condition of coral reefs over time. Both biological and physical data is collected by UMES-IAN and NOAA scientists in coral reef areas including: American Samoa, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianna Islands, Guam, Hawaiian Archipelago, and the Pacific Remote Islands. The status reports include

6750-518: The Caribbean have declined by an estimated 80%, from an average of 50% cover in the 1970s to only about 10% cover in the early 2000s. A 2013 study to follow up on a mass bleaching event in Tobago from 2010 showed that after only one year, the majority of the dominant species declined by about 62% while coral abundance declined by about 50%. However, between 2011 and 2013, coral cover increased for 10 of

6885-557: The Convention and the 2010 target to significantly reduce the current late of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, national, and sub-national levels and contribute to poverty reduction and the pursuit of sustainable development ." The UN later endorsed another decision, Decision VII/15, in 2006: Effective conservation of 10% of each of the world's ecological regions by 2010. – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Decision VII/15 The 10% conservation goal

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7020-497: The Cook Islands marine environment". Other large marine conservation areas include those around Antarctica, New Caledonia, Greenland, Alaska, Ascension Island, and Brazil. As areas of protected marine biodiversity expand, there has been an increase in ocean science funding, essential for preserving marine resources . In 2020, only around 7.5 to 8% of the global ocean area falls under a conservation designation. This area

7155-561: The El Nino Southern Oscillation have been found to be one of the main causes of widespread coral bleaching and consequent coral mortality. Extreme bleaching events are directly linked with climate-induced phenomena that increase ocean temperature , such as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The warming ocean surface waters can lead to bleaching of corals which can cause serious damage and coral death. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 found that: "Since

7290-470: The Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands, and Cook Islands who have individual EEZ areas of between 1.9 and 3.5 million km . The national EEZ's are the ones where governance is easier, and agreements to create marine parks are within national jurisdictions, such as is the case with Marae Moana and the Cook Islands. One alternative to imposing MPAs on an indigenous population is through

7425-537: The Great Lakes of North America. The form of marine protected areas trace the origins to the World Congress on National Parks in 1962. In 1976, a process was delivered to the excessive rights to every sovereign state to establish marine protected areas at over 200 nautical miles. Over the next two decades, a scientific body of evidence marked the utility in the designation of marine protected areas. In

7560-622: The Hawaii coast. The CRCP provides financial support to a number of institutional organisations with the purpose of funding and supporting the development of research papers interested in the restoration and protection of coral reef ecosystems. In 2015 the NOAA CRCP funded a study run by the Florida International University, which found that 'grazing fish can help save imperilled coral reefs'. The CRCP has also funded

7695-540: The Indian Ocean. Up to 90% of coral cover has been lost in the Maldives, Sri Lanka , Kenya and Tanzania and in the Seychelles during the massive 1997–98 bleaching event. The Indian Ocean in 1998 reported 20% of its coral had died and 80% was bleached. The shallow tropical areas of the Indian Ocean are already experiencing what are predicted to be worldwide ocean conditions in the future. Coral that has survived in

7830-637: The Northwest islands in 2002 and 2004. In 2014, biologists from the University of Queensland observed the first mass bleaching event, and attributed it to The Blob . In 2014 and 2015, a survey in Hanauma Bay Nature Preserve on Oahu found 47% of the corals suffering from coral bleaching and close to 10% of the corals dying. In 2014 and 2015, 56% of the coral reefs of the big island were affected by coral bleaching events. During

7965-600: The Ross Sea after several years of failed negotiations. Establishment of the Ross Sea MPA required unanimity of the commission members and enforcement will begin in December 2017. However, due to a sunset provision inserted into the proposal, the new marine park will only be in force for 35 years. Many countries have established national targets, accompanied by action plans and implementations. The UN Council identified

8100-790: The South Sandwich Islands Marine Protected Area . When counted with MPAs of all sizes from many other countries, as of April 2023 there are more than 16,615 MPAs, encompassing 7.2% of the world's oceans (26,146,645 km ), with less than half of that area – encompassing 2.9% of the world's oceans – assessed to be fully or highly protected according to the MPA Guide Framework. Several types of compliant MPA can be distinguished: IUCN offered seven categories of protected area , based on management objectives and four broad governance types. Related protected area categories include

8235-713: The U.S, through grants and agreements. Funding for the CRCP is provided by the NOAA and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The CRCP is made up of several NOAA Line Offices including the National Ocean Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, and the National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service. The CRCP also works closely with

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8370-480: The absence of zooxanthellae, and how quickly new coral grows to replace the dead. Due to the patchy nature of bleaching, local climatic conditions such as shade or a stream of cooler water can reduce bleaching incidence. Coral and zooxanthellae health and genetics also influence bleaching. Large coral colonies such as Porites are able to withstand extreme temperature shocks, while fragile branching corals such Acropora are far more susceptible to stress following

8505-619: The aftermath of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , an international target was established with the encompassment of ten percent of the world's marine protected areas. On 28 October 2016 in Hobart , Australia , the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources agreed to establish the first Antarctic and largest marine protected area in the world encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in

8640-456: The assessment of several indicators which are synthesised into overall condition scores. The indicators are based on four main categories: coral and algae, fish, climate and human connections. The purpose of the reports is to establish both a baseline and a record to track changes overtime and evaluate the overall conditions of the U.S. coral reef ecosystems. The reports are also part of CRCP's larger initiative to communicate complex information in

8775-518: The associated coral mortality affecting reefs in every part of the world. In 2016, the longest coral bleaching event was recorded. The longest and most destructive coral bleaching event was because of the El Niño that occurred from 2014 to 2017. During this time, over 70 percent of the coral reefs around the world have become damaged. Factors that influence the outcome of a bleaching event include stress-resistance which reduces bleaching, tolerance to

8910-523: The big island, roughly 40% of corals experienced bleaching in the Kona coast area. The DAR stated that the recent bleaching events have not been as bad as the 2014–2015 events. In 2020, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) released the first-ever nationwide coral reef status report. The report stated that the northwestern and main Hawaiian islands were in "fair" shape, meaning

9045-419: The bleaching patterns varied among species. Colpophyllia natans and Diploria strigosa were particularly susceptible to thermal stress, whereas Stephanocoenia intersepta exhibited greater tolerance. Moreover, it was noted that larger coral colonies experienced more bleaching compared to smaller ones. The prediction suggests that mass bleaching events are likely to affect larger coral colonies even within

9180-426: The breakdown of the coral/zooxanthellae symbiosis. To ensure short-term survival, the coral-polyp then consumes or expels the zooxanthellae. This leads to a lighter or completely white appearance, hence the term "bleached". Under mild stress conditions, some corals may appear bright blue, pink, purple, or yellow instead of white, due to the continued or increased presence of the coral cells' intrinsic pigment molecules,

9315-401: The commercial value of reefs decreases by almost 4% every time coral cover decreases by 1% because of losses in ecotourism and other potential outdoor recreational activities. Coral reefs also act as a protective barrier for coastlines by reducing wave impact, which lowers the damage from storms, erosions, and flooding. Countries that lose this natural protection will lose more money because of

9450-424: The coral its coloration. The zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients through photosynthesis , a crucial factor in the clear and nutrient-poor tropical waters. In exchange, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with the carbon dioxide and ammonium needed for photosynthesis. Negative environmental conditions, such as abnormally warm or cool temperatures, high light, and even some microbial diseases, can lead to

9585-535: The coral reef ecosystem The CRCP funds a number of projects and programs that are interested in the sustainable management of U.S. coral reef ecosystems, including the Hawaii Coastal Uses Mapping Project. The project involved gathering data and information on the impact of human activity near coastal environments on coral reef ecosystems surrounding Hawaii, by using a participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) methodology. PGIS

9720-568: The coral reefs in Florida and Puerto Rico, impacting ecosystem vulnerability and resilience. Funding to assist coral restoration was provided by the NOAA's CRCP and partners including the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation and National Marine Fisheries Service. The program led efforts to assess the impact of the hurricanes on local coral reef ecosystems and restore damage. The funds were used towards research and assessment to collect data on

9855-589: The coral skeletons will erode, causing the reef structure to collapse. Coral bleaching may be caused by a number of factors. While localized triggers lead to localized bleaching, the large-scale coral bleaching events of recent years have been triggered by global warming . Under the increased carbon dioxide concentration expected in the 21st century, corals are expected to become increasingly rare on reef systems. Coral reefs located in warm, shallow water with low water flow have been more affected than reefs located in areas with higher water flow. Marine heatwaves caused by

9990-434: The coral through photosynthesis. This relationship has allowed coral to survive for at least 210 million years in nutrient-poor environments. Coral bleaching is caused by the breakdown of this relationship. The corals that form the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae-like single-celled flagellate protozoa called zooxanthellae that live within their tissues and give

10125-442: The coral tissue becomes transparent, revealing the coral skeleton made of calcium carbonate . Most bleached corals appear bright white, but some are blue, yellow, or pink due to pigment proteins in the coral. The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising ocean temperatures due to climate change caused by anthropogenic activities. A temperature about 1 °C (or 2 °F) above average can cause bleaching. The ocean takes in

10260-410: The coral will exhibit a stress response that includes producing reactive oxygen species, the accumulation of this if not removed by antioxidant systems will lead to the death of the coral. Studies testing the structures of coral under heat stressed environments show that the thickness of the coral itself greatly decreases under heat stress compared to the control. With the death of the zooxanthellae in

10395-547: The corals have been moderately impacted. Eight severe and two moderate bleaching events occurred between 1960 and 2016 in the coral community in Jarvis Island , with the 2015–16 bleaching displaying the unprecedented severity in the record. About 94% of the corals on Japan's Iriomote Island in the Ryukyu Islands bleached during a significant coral bleaching event that occurred in 2016. Prior to this event,

10530-430: The decline of fish diversity. The loss of diversity and abundance in herbivorous fish particularly affect coral reef ecosystems. As mass bleaching events occur more frequently, fish populations will continue to homogenize. Smaller and more specialized fish species that fill particular ecological niches that are crucial for coral health are replaced by more generalized species. The loss of specialization likely contributes to

10665-459: The early 1980s, the frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events have increased sharply worldwide". Coral reefs, as well as other shelf-sea ecosystems, such as rocky shores , kelp forests , seagrasses , and mangroves , have recently undergone mass mortalities from marine heatwaves . It is expected that many coral reefs will "undergo irreversible phase shifts due to marine heatwaves with global warming levels >1.5°C". This problem

10800-902: The earth's surface. Another factor that will influence the development of marine conservation areas is ownership. Who owns the world's oceans? Approximately 64% of the world's oceans are " international waters " and subject to regulations such as the Law of the Sea and the governance of UN bodies such as the International Seabed Authority . The remaining 36% of the ocean is under the governance of individual countries within their Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). Some individual national EEZ's cover very large areas , such as France and USA (>11 million km ), and Australia, Russia, UK, and Indonesia (>6 million km ). Some states have very small land areas but extremely large EEZ's such as Kiribati,

10935-614: The effects of these threats on the condition of U.S. coral reef ecosystems is the primary responsibility of the CRCP. Each year NOAA divers survey coral reefs at nearly 1600 sites to monitor these effects. All research and data collected by the CRCP is publicly available on the Coral Reef Information System. Other than ecosystem monitoring, other tasks conducted by the CRCP include mapping of coral reef habitats, forecasting oceanographic conditions, and communications and data management. As well as conducting research,

11070-538: The enclosed environment. United States Executive Order 13158 in May 2000 established MPAs, defining them as: Any area of the marine environment that has been reserved by federal, state, tribal, territorial, or local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of the natural and cultural resources therein. The Convention on Biological Diversity defined the broader term of marine and coastal protected area (MCPA): Any defined area within or adjacent to

11205-488: The fabric of nation states. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines a protected area as: A clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values. This definition is intended to make it more difficult to claim MPA status for regions where exploitation of marine resources occurs. If there

11340-548: The findings were devastating. Virtually all the living coral was bleached white and their skeletons indicated that they had died recently. At the lagoon floor, complete bleaching was evident among A. tenuifolia . Furthermore, surveys done in 1999 and 2000 showed a near total mortality of A. tenuifolia at all depths. Similar patterns occurred in other coral species as well. Measurements on water turbidity suggest that these mortalities were attributed to rising water temperatures rather than solar radiation. Hard coral cover on reefs in

11475-420: The fishing industry through the revival of fish stocks, as well as job creation and other market benefits via ecotourism . The value of MPA to mobile species is unknown. There are a number of global examples of large marine conservation areas. The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument , is situated in the central Pacific Ocean, around Hawaii , occupying an area of 1.5 million square kilometers. The area

11610-613: The following four key pillars, as outlined in the NOAA governmental webpage. The CRCP has adopted a resilience-based approach to addressing the issue of climate change which poses a significant threat to coral reef ecosystems by instigating coral bleaching . A resilience-based approach involves increasing the capacity of coral reef ecosystems to recover from changes in parameters and continue normal functioning. Resilience based management utilises pro-active responses rather than reactive responses that traditional management strategies tend to adopt. The CRCP's main responsibility under this approach

11745-504: The following; While "area" refers to a single contiguous location, terms such as " network ", " system ", and " region " that group MPAs are not always consistently employed." System " is more often used to refer to an individual MPA, whereas " region " is defined by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre as: A collection of individual MPAs operating cooperatively, at various spatial scales and with

11880-528: The future viability of coral reefs. To fulfil this responsibility, the CRCP has developed communication plans and response plans to present information and data in a systematic and coherent manner for federal decision and policy makers. Crisis response plans are made up of early warning frameworks to prepare and protect ecosystems in response to global threat events such as coral bleaching, disease and invasive species outbreaks, and natural weather disasters such as tropical storms. Land-based sources of pollution pose

12015-505: The governmental jurisdictions they occupy. Empowering communities to manage resources can lower conflict levels and enlist the support of diverse groups that rely on the resource such as subsistence and commercial fishers, scientists, recreation, tourism businesses, youths and others. Mistrust between fishermen and regulating authorities is of central importance there, and needs to be addressed. Recent evidence from regions like Scandinavia, Spain, Portugal or Canada reveals success stories based on

12150-433: The health status of the corals. Increasing ocean acidification due to rises in carbon dioxide levels exacerbates the bleaching effects of thermal stress. Acidification affects the corals' ability to create calcareous skeletons, essential to their survival. This is because ocean acidification decreases the amount of carbonate ion in the water, making it more difficult for corals to absorb the calcium carbonate they need for

12285-448: The heat stressed events, the coral must find new sources to gather fixed carbon to generate energy, species of coral that can increase their carnivorous tendencies have been found to have an increased likelihood of recovering from bleaching events. Marine protected areas A marine protected area ( MPA ) is a protected area of the world's seas , oceans , estuaries or in the US,

12420-630: The hydrogen peroxide produced in zooxanthealle plays a role in signaling themselves to flee the corals. Photo-inhibition of Zooxanthellae can be caused by exposure to UV filters found in personal care products. In a study done by Zhong et al., Oxybenzone (BP-3) had the most negative effects on zooxanthellae health. The combination of temperature increase and presence of UV filters in the ocean has further decreased zooxanthellae health. The combination of UV filters and higher temperatures led to an additive effect on photo-inhibition and overall stress on coral species. Following bleaching events, there has been

12555-479: The impact of the hurricanes on the reefs and other crucial information, vital for effective decision-making. It was found that overturned coral reefs in Puerto Rico appeared to have macroalgal overgrowth, as evident in the figure, as a result of stress from the 2017 hurricanes. Scientists are concerned with the rapid growth of this macroalgae, and such findings are vital for effective management decision-making for

12690-406: The increased susceptibility of storms. This indirect cost, combined with the lost revenue from tourism, will result in enormous economic effects. The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) monitors for bleaching "hot spots", areas where sea surface temperature rises 1 °C or more above the long-term monthly average. The "hot spots" are the locations in which thermal stress

12825-486: The levels of CO 2 could become too high for coral to survive in as little as 50 years. Zooxanthellae are a type of dinoflagellate that live within the cytoplasm of many marine invertebrates. Members of the phylum Dinoflagellata, they are round microalgae that share a symbiotic relationship with their host. They are also part of the genus Symbiodinium and Kingdom Alveolata . These organisms are phytoplankton and therefore photosynthesize. The host organism harnesses

12960-418: The loss of resilience in coral reef ecosystems after bleaching events. According to Brian Skoloff of The Christian Science Monitor , "If the reefs vanished, experts say, hunger, poverty and political instability could ensue." Since countless sea life depend on the reefs for shelter and protection from predators, the extinction of the reefs would ultimately create a domino effect that would trickle down to

13095-415: The majority of coral without zooxanthellae starve. Normally, coral polyps live in an endosymbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae. This relationship is crucial for the health of the coral and the reef, which provide shelter for approximately 25% of all marine life. In this relationship, the coral provides the zooxanthellae with shelter. In return, the zooxanthellae provide compounds that give energy to

13230-536: The many human societies that depend on those fish for food and livelihood. There has been a 44% decline over the last 20 years in the Florida Keys and up to 80% in the Caribbean alone. Coral reefs provide various ecosystem services , one of which is being a natural fishery, as many frequently consumed commercial fish spawn or live out their juvenile lives in coral reefs around the tropics. Thus, reefs are

13365-418: The marine environment, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation or other effective means, including custom, with the effect that its marine and/or coastal biodiversity enjoys a higher level of protection than its surroundings. An apparently unique extension of the meaning is used by NOAA to refer to protected areas on

13500-402: The mass bleaching event that occurred in the Indian Ocean region was due to the rising of sea temperatures by 2 °C coupled with the strong El Niño event in 1997–1998 . In April 2024 a 4th global coral bleaching event was confirmed by NOAA The share of affected coral reefs worldwide by each of the four bleaching events has been estimated to be 20%, 35%, 56% and 54%. Preceding this,

13635-549: The ocean's single greatest hope for increasing the resilience of the marine environment to such stressors. Well-designed and managed MPAs developed with input and support from interested stakeholders can conserve biodiversity and protect and restore fisheries . MPAs can help sustain local economies by supporting fisheries and tourism. For example, Apo Island in the Philippines made protected one quarter of their reef, allowing fish to recover, jump-starting their economy. This

13770-401: The overall effects on coral reef ecosystems. One of the CRCP's targets is for at least seven of the organisation's partners to apply such climate resilience related data to climate-change orientated projects, by 2025. The CRCP also has the responsibility of initiating ongoing communication with government bodies and federal management partners on the importance of resilience-based management for

13905-546: The pathogen, and further infection was not observed. The main hypothesis for the emerged resistance is the presence of symbiotic communities of protective bacteria living in the corals. The bacterial species capable of lysing V. shiloi had not been identified as of 2011. The Great Barrier Reef along the coast of Australia experienced bleaching events in 1980, 1982, 1992, 1994, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2016, 2017 and 2022. Some locations suffered severe damage, with up to 90% mortality. The most widespread and intense events occurred in

14040-476: The perspective of resource users, intended to address both environmental and socio-economic needs, complementary ecological and social goals and designs need greater research and policy support". Filipino communities connect with one another to share information about MPAs, creating a larger network through the social communities' support. Emerging or established MPA networks can be found in Australia , Belize,

14175-451: The prevention of avoidable losses of coral, increasing resilience and improving long-term coral health. In order to successfully enhance resilience the CRCP has recognised the need to conduct restoration projects on an international level by continuing to build foreign partnership. Restoration projects include resilience interventions such as assisted genetic adaptation, the manipulation of symbiotic relationships and larval propagation. One of

14310-455: The products of photosynthesis, i.e. oxygen, sugar, etc., and in exchange, the zooxanthellae are offered housing and protection, as well as carbon dioxide, phosphates , and other essential inorganic compounds that help them to survive and thrive. Zooxanthellae share 95% of the products of photosynthesis with their host coral. According to a study done by D.J. Smith et al., photoinhibition is a likely factor in coral bleaching. It also suggests that

14445-585: The public. In 2017, the CRCP developed an educational video named "A Guide to Assessing Coral Reef Resilience for Decision Support". The video was awarded first place at the 2018 CINEFISH film festival, held in Mexico. The CRCP funds a wide variety of coral reef management projects ranging from school science excursions, projects concerning the identification and mapping of coral ecosystems, the publication of educational materials and restoration initiatives. In 2017 Hurricanes Irma and Maria caused severe damage to

14580-539: The reef-dwelling organisms. In 2010, researchers at Penn State discovered corals that were thriving while using an unusual species of symbiotic algae in the warm waters of the Andaman Sea in the Indian Ocean. Normal zooxanthellae cannot withstand temperatures as high as was there, so this finding was unexpected. This gives researchers hope that with rising temperatures due to global warming, coral reefs will develop tolerance for different species of symbiotic algae that are resistant to high temperature, and can live within

14715-490: The reefs. In 2010, researchers from Stanford University also found corals around the Samoan Islands that experience a drastic temperature increase for about four hours a day during low tide. The corals do not bleach or die regardless of the high heat increase. Studies showed that the corals off the coast of Ofu Island near America Samoa have become trained to withstand the high temperatures. Researchers are now asking

14850-498: The region typically experienced multiple typhoons during July and August. However, during this particular event, no typhoon was detected until September, suggesting a prolonged period of high seawater temperatures. According to the 2017 Japanese government report, almost 75% of Japan's largest coral reef in Okinawa has died from bleaching. Coral reef provinces have been permanently damaged by warm sea temperatures, most severely in

14985-562: The region while protecting ecosystem integrity south of the Antarctic Convergence and 60 S latitude . In so doing, it also established a commission of the original signatories and acceding parties called the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) to advance these aims through protection, scientific study, and rational use, such as harvesting, of those marine resources. Though separate,

15120-580: The remaining 90% caused about equally by tropical cyclones and by predation by crown-of-thorns starfishes . A global mass coral bleaching has been occurring since 2014 because of the highest recorded temperatures plaguing oceans. These temperatures have caused the most severe and widespread coral bleaching ever recorded in the Great Barrier reef. The most severe bleaching in 2016 occurred near Port Douglas. In late November 2016, surveys of 62 reefs showed that long term heat stress from climate change caused

15255-485: The same community. In South Florida , a 2016 survey of large corals from Key Biscayne to Fort Lauderdale found that about 66% of the corals were dead or reduced to less than half of their live tissue. The first recorded mass bleaching event that took place in the Belize Barrier Reef was in 1998, where sea level temperatures reached up to 31.5 °C (88.7 °F) from 10 August to 14 October. For

15390-454: The same period, 44% of the corals on west Maui were effected. On 24 January 2019, scientists with The Nature Conservancy found that the reefs had begun to stabilize nearly 4 years after the last bleaching event. According to the Division of Aquatic Resources (DAR) , there was still a considerable amount of bleaching in 2019. On Oahu and Maui , up to 50% of the coral reefs were bleached. On

15525-558: The second major coral bleaching crisis of this decade began in February 2023, affecting reefs across 54 nations in all major ocean basins . This event has led to severe damage, with coral mortalities reaching up to 93% in areas like the Pacific coast near Mexico . The economic implications are profound, as coral reefs contribute approximately $ 2.7 trillion annually to the global economy , including $ 36 billion from tourism alone. Although

15660-603: The shallow areas of the Indian Ocean may be proper candidates for coral restoration efforts in other areas of the world because they are able to survive the extreme conditions of the ocean. The Maldives has over 20,000 km of reefs, of which more than 60% of the coral has suffered from bleaching in 2016. Moreover, the Maldivian coral reef faces risks from the growing tourism industry and coastal construction, as well as land reclamation projects, alongside natural challenges such as diseases. Coral reef ecosystems are

15795-522: The skeleton. As a result, the resilience of reefs goes down, while it becomes easier for them to erode and dissolve. In addition, the increase in CO 2 allows herbivore overfishing and nutrification to change coral-dominated ecosystems to algal-dominated ecosystems. A recent study from the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future found that with the combination of acidification and temperature rises,

15930-441: The southern Persian/Arabian Gulf. Some of these corals bleach only when water temperatures exceed ~35 °C. Bleached corals continue to live, but they are more vulnerable to disease and starvation. Zooxanthellae provide up to 90 percent of the coral's energy, so corals are deprived of nutrients when zooxanthellae are expelled. Some corals recover if conditions return to normal, and some corals can feed themselves. However,

16065-545: The southern reef should be bigger and healthier than the northern, it was not. This is believed to be because of major disturbances in recent history from bleaching events, and coral-eating starfish. In 2010, coral bleaching occurred in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, where the temperature rose 10 to 11 degrees. Certain taxa experienced 80% to 100% of their colonies bleaching, while some showed on average 20% of that taxa bleaching. In recent times, climate change has been linked to

16200-629: The southern shelf of the South Orkney Islands . This area encompasses 94,000 square kilometres (36,000 sq mi) and all fishing activity including transshipment, and dumping or discharge of waste is prohibited with the exception of scientific research endeavors. On 28 October 2016, the CCAMLR, composed of 24 member countries and the European Union at the time, agreed to establish the world's largest marine park encompassing 1.55 million km (600,000 sq mi) in

16335-477: The spillover of the marine protected area. Typical MPAs restrict fishing , oil and gas mining and/or tourism . Other restrictions may limit the use of ultrasonic devices like sonar (which may confuse the guidance system of cetaceans ), development, construction and the like. Some fishing restrictions include "no-take" zones, which means that no fishing is allowed. Less than 1% of US MPAs are no-take. Ship transit can also be restricted or banned, either as

16470-673: The strategies is to provide key data for coral reef fisheries management. Data collected by the CRCP is used by a number of fisheries managers working under the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act in order to ensure that the ecological role and function that marine species play in coral reef ecosystems is sustained. The second strategy is to assist partner agencies in effectively managing coral reef fisheries. The CRCP aims for 50 percent of relevant partners to adopt effective management tools of which have been developed cooperatively. One way that

16605-427: The summers of 1998 and 2002, with 42% and 54%, respectively, of reefs bleached to some extent, and 18% strongly bleached. However, coral losses on the reef between 1995 and 2009 were largely offset by growth of new corals. An overall analysis of coral loss found that coral populations on the Great Barrier Reef had declined by 50.7% from 1985 to 2012, but with only about 10% of that decline attributable to bleaching, and

16740-403: The terms laid out by the convention, and in 2004, its member nations committed to the following targets; "The establishment by 2010 of terrestrial and by 2012 for marine areas of comprehensive, effectively managed, and ecologically representative national and regional systems of protected areas that collectively, inter alia through a global network, contribute to achieving the three objectives of

16875-448: The tested cooperation between marine scientists and fishermen in jointly managing coastal marine reserves. Marine Protected Area Networks or MPA networks have been defined as "A group of MPAs that interact with one another ecologically and/or socially form a network". These networks are intended to connect individuals and MPAs and promote education and cooperation among various administrations and user groups. "MPA networks are, from

17010-817: The use of Indigenous Protected Areas , such as those in Australia. The 17th International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) General Assembly in San Jose , California, the 19th IUCN assembly and the fourth World Parks Congress all proposed to centralise the establishment of protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002 called for the establishment of marine protected areas consistent with international laws and based on scientific information, including representative networks by 2012. The Evian agreement, signed by G8 Nations in 2003, agreed to these terms. The Durban Action Plan, developed in 2003, called for regional action and targets to establish

17145-515: The virulence of V. shiloi , which then become able to adhere to a beta-galactoside -containing receptor in the surface mucus of the host coral. V. shiloi then penetrates the coral's epidermis , multiplies, and produces both heat-stable and heat-sensitive toxins , which affect zooxanthellae by inhibiting photosynthesis and causing lysis . During the summer of 2003, coral reefs in the Mediterranean Sea appeared to gain resistance to

17280-616: The world's oceans needed to be protected within 3 years. The 10% protection goal is described as a "baby step" as 30% is the real amount of ocean protection scientists agree on that should be implemented. On 7 April 1982, the Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CAMLR Convention) came into force after discussions began in 1975 between parties of the then-current Antarctic Treaty to limit large-scale exploitation of krill by commercial fisheries. The Convention bound contracting nations to abide by previously agreed upon Antarctic territorial claims and peaceful use of

17415-506: The worldwide 1998 bleaching event, that corresponded to the 1997–98 El Niño event . Currently, 190 reef sites around the globe are monitored by the NOAA, and send alerts to research scientists and reef managers via the NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW) website. By monitoring the warming of sea temperatures, the early warnings of coral bleaching alert reef managers to prepare for and draw awareness to future bleaching events. The first mass global bleaching events were recorded in 1998 and 2010, which

17550-407: The zooxanthellae have to re-enter the tissues of the coral polyps and restart photosynthesis to sustain the coral as a whole and the ecosystem that depends on it. If the coral polyps die of starvation after bleaching, they will decay. The hard coral species will then leave behind their calcium carbonate skeletons , which will be taken over by algae , effectively blocking coral regrowth. Eventually,

17685-422: Was a massive bleaching event that affected the reefs in Saudi Arabia and Sudan, though the southern reefs were more resilient and it affected them very little. Previously, it was thought that the northern reef suffers more from coral bleaching and shows a fast turnover of coral, while the southern reef was thought to not suffer from bleaching as harshly and show more consistency. However, new research shows that where

17820-675: Was a study done on two islands in Indonesia to see how their coral cover was. One of the places was the Melinjo Islands and the other was the Saktu Islands . On Saktu Island, the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.3%. In the Melinjo Islands, the lifeform conditions were categorized as bad, with an average coral cover of 22.2%. During the 2005 mass bleaching event in Florida,

17955-498: Was already identified in 2007 by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as the greatest threat to the world's reef systems. The Great Barrier Reef experienced its first major bleaching event in 1998. Since then, bleaching events have increased in frequency, with three events occurring in the years 2016–2020. Bleaching is predicted to occur three times a decade on the Great Barrier Reef if warming

18090-590: Was shown in the film, Resources at Risk: Philippine Coral Reef . A 2016 report by the Center for Development and Strategy found that programs like the United States National Marine Sanctuary system can develop considerable economic benefits for communities through Public–private partnerships . They can be self-financed through a surrounding "conservation finance area" in which a limited number licenses are granted to benefit from

18225-667: Was when the El Niño caused the ocean temperatures to rise and worsened the corals living conditions. The 2014–2017 El Niño was recorded to be the longest and most damaging to the corals, which harmed over 70% of our coral reefs. Over two-thirds of the Great Barrier Reef have been reported to be bleached or dead. To accurately monitoring the extent and evolution of bleaching events, scientist are using underwater photogrammetric techniques to create accurate orthophoto of coral reefs transects and AI-assisted image segmentation with open source tools like TagLab to identify from these photos

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