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80-467: Construction of the cut was one of the great engineering feats of its time; the immense effort required to complete it was justified by the great significance of the canal to shipping , and in particular the strategic interests of the United States of America. Culebra is the name for the mountain ridge it cuts through, and was also originally applied to the cut itself. From 1915 to 2000 the cut

160-585: A brain tumor in Baltimore , Maryland, and hence he did not live to see the opening of the canal in 1914. The Culebra Cut , as it was originally known, was renamed to the Gaillard Cut on April 27, 1915, in his honor. After the handing over of the canal to Panama in 2000, the old name Culebra Cut was reinstated. 9°4′38″N 79°40′31″W  /  9.07722°N 79.67528°W  / 9.07722; -79.67528 Engineering Engineering

240-698: A broad range of more specialized fields of engineering , each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics , applied science , and types of application. See glossary of engineering . The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium , meaning "cleverness". The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET ) has defined "engineering" as: The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate

320-407: A commercial scale, such as the manufacture of commodity chemicals , specialty chemicals , petroleum refining , microfabrication , fermentation , and biomolecule production . Civil engineering is the design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply, and treatment etc.), bridges, tunnels, dams, and buildings. Civil engineering

400-533: A count of 2,000. There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before 1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890, there were 6,000 engineers in civil, mining , mechanical and electrical. There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics at Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany established technical universities earlier. The foundations of electrical engineering in

480-420: A demand for machinery with metal parts, which led to the development of several machine tools . Boring cast iron cylinders with precision was not possible until John Wilkinson invented his boring machine , which is considered the first machine tool . Other machine tools included the screw cutting lathe , milling machine , turret lathe and the metal planer . Precision machining techniques were developed in

560-414: A hard, fissile, metamorphic rock known as slate . With continued increase in metamorphic grade the sequence is phyllite , then schist and finally gneiss . Shale is the most common source rock for hydrocarbons ( natural gas and petroleum ). The lack of coarse sediments in most shale beds reflects the absence of strong currents in the waters of the depositional basin. These might have oxygenated

640-459: A high level. After this, the sediment in the upper levels of the cut were removed, resulting in less weight over the weak strata. Landslides continued to be a problem after the canal's opening, causing intermittent closures. Steam shovels broke through the Culebra Cut on May 20, 1913. The Americans had lowered the summit of the cut from 59 to 12 metres (194 to 39 ft) above sea level, at

720-400: A result, many engineers continue to learn new material throughout their careers. If multiple solutions exist, engineers weigh each design choice based on their merit and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to yield a successful result. It is generally insufficient to build

800-447: A single blast. The excavation of the cut was one of the greatest areas of uncertainty in the creation of the canal, due to the unpredicted large landslides . The International Board of Consulting Engineers had mistakenly decided that the rock would be stable at a height of 73.5 metres (241 ft) with a slope of 1 in 1.5; in practice, the rock began to collapse from that slope at a height of only 19.5 metres (64 ft). The misjudgment

880-411: A technically successful product, rather, it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety , marketability, productivity, and serviceability . By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for

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960-643: A testament to the ingenuity and skill of ancient civil and military engineers. Other monuments, no longer standing, such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Pharos of Alexandria , were important engineering achievements of their time and were considered among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World . The six classic simple machines were known in the ancient Near East . The wedge and

1040-909: A useful purpose. Examples of bioengineering research include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology, portable and rapid disease diagnostic devices, prosthetics, biopharmaceuticals, and tissue-engineered organs. Interdisciplinary engineering draws from more than one of the principle branches of the practice. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields are manufacturing engineering , acoustical engineering , corrosion engineering , instrumentation and control , aerospace , automotive , computer , electronic , information engineering , petroleum , environmental , systems , audio , software , architectural , agricultural , biosystems , biomedical , geological , textile , industrial , materials , and nuclear engineering . These and other branches of engineering are represented in

1120-414: A valley up to 540 metres (0.34 mi) wide at the top. A vast amount of new earthmoving equipment was imported, and a comprehensive system of railways was constructed for the removal of the immense amounts of earthen and rocky spoil . Major David du Bose Gaillard , of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers , joined the project at the same time as Goethals, and he was put in charge of the central district of

1200-644: A way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the discipline of military engineering . The pyramids in ancient Egypt , ziggurats of Mesopotamia , the Acropolis and Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts , Via Appia and Colosseum, Teotihuacán , and the Brihadeeswarar Temple of Thanjavur , among many others, stand as

1280-513: Is a broad discipline that is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Although an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, he or she may become multi-disciplined through experience. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: chemical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, and mechanical engineering. Chemical engineering is the application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on

1360-1201: Is accompanied by telogenesis , the third and final stage of diagenesis. As erosion reduces the depth of burial, renewed exposure to meteoric water produces additional changes to the shale, such as dissolution of some of the cement to produce secondary porosity . Pyrite may be oxidized to produce gypsum . Black shales are dark, as a result of being especially rich in unoxidized carbon . Common in some Paleozoic and Mesozoic strata , black shales were deposited in anoxic , reducing environments, such as in stagnant water columns. Some black shales contain abundant heavy metals such as molybdenum , uranium , vanadium , and zinc . The enriched values are of controversial origin, having been alternatively attributed to input from hydrothermal fluids during or after sedimentation or to slow accumulation from sea water over long periods of sedimentation. Fossils , animal tracks or burrows and even raindrop impressions are sometimes preserved on shale bedding surfaces. Shales may also contain concretions consisting of pyrite, apatite , or various carbonate minerals. Shales that are subject to heat and pressure of metamorphism alter into

1440-734: Is associated with anything constructed on or within the Earth. This discipline applies geological sciences and engineering principles to direct or support the work of other disciplines such as civil engineering , environmental engineering , and mining engineering . Geological engineers are involved with impact studies for facilities and operations that affect surface and subsurface environments, such as rock excavations (e.g. tunnels ), building foundation consolidation, slope and fill stabilization, landslide risk assessment, groundwater monitoring, groundwater remediation , mining excavations, and natural resource exploration. One who practices engineering

1520-497: Is called an engineer , and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer , Chartered Engineer , Incorporated Engineer , Ingenieur , European Engineer , or Designated Engineering Representative . In the engineering design process, engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find novel solutions to problems or to improve existing solutions. Engineers need proficient knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As

1600-420: Is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers ( laminae ) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called fissility . Shale is the most common sedimentary rock. The term shale is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock , rather than in the narrower sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock. Shale typically exhibits varying degrees of fissility. Because of

1680-638: Is composed of about 58% clay minerals, 28% quartz, 6% feldspar , 5% carbonate minerals, and 2% iron oxides . Most of the quartz is detrital (part of the original sediments that formed the shale) rather than authigenic (crystallized within the shale after deposition). Shales and other mudrocks contain roughly 95 percent of the organic matter in all sedimentary rocks. However, this amounts to less than one percent by mass in an average shale. Black shales, which form in anoxic conditions, contain reduced free carbon along with ferrous iron (Fe ) and sulfur (S ). Amorphous iron sulfide , along with carbon, produce

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1760-430: Is evidence that shale acts as a semipermeable medium, allowing water to pass through while retaining dissolved salts. The fine particles that compose shale can remain suspended in water long after the larger particles of sand have been deposited. As a result, shales are typically deposited in very slow moving water and are often found in lakes and lagoonal deposits, in river deltas , on floodplains and offshore below

1840-455: Is more likely to form nonfissile mudstone than shale. On the other hand, black shales often have very pronounced fissility ( paper shales ) due to binding of hydrocarbon molecules to the faces of the clay particles, which weakens the binding between particles. Lithification follows closely on compaction, as increased temperatures at depth hasten deposition of cement that binds the grains together. Pressure solution contributes to cementing, as

1920-452: Is reduced. In addition to this physical compaction, chemical compaction may take place via pressure solution . Points of contact between grains are under the greatest strain, and the strained mineral is more soluble than the rest of the grain. As a result, the contact points are dissolved away, allowing the grains to come into closer contact. It is during compaction that shale develops its fissility, likely through mechanical compaction of

2000-428: Is the design and manufacture of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace / aircraft products, weapon systems , transportation products, engines , compressors , powertrains , kinematic chains , vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing , robotics, turbines, audio equipments, and mechatronics . Bioengineering is the engineering of biological systems for

2080-404: Is the practice of using natural science , mathematics , and the engineering design process to solve technical problems, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve systems. Modern engineering comprises many subfields which include designing and improving infrastructure , machinery , vehicles , electronics , materials , and energy systems. The discipline of engineering encompasses

2160-664: Is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines, including structural engineering , environmental engineering , and surveying . It is traditionally considered to be separate from military engineering . Electrical engineering is the design, study, and manufacture of various electrical and electronic systems, such as broadcast engineering , electrical circuits , generators , motors , electromagnetic / electromechanical devices, electronic devices , electronic circuits , optical fibers , optoelectronic devices , computer systems, telecommunications , instrumentation , control systems , and electronics . Mechanical engineering

2240-864: The Neo-Assyrian period (911–609) BC. The Egyptian pyramids were built using three of the six simple machines, the inclined plane, the wedge, and the lever, to create structures like the Great Pyramid of Giza . The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep . As one of the officials of the Pharaoh , Djosèr , he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid ) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630–2611 BC. The earliest practical water-powered machines,

2320-547: The Newcomen steam engine . Smeaton designed the third Eddystone Lighthouse (1755–59) where he pioneered the use of ' hydraulic lime ' (a form of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks of granite in the building of the lighthouse. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement , because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in lime; work which led ultimately to

2400-455: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium ( c.  1250 ), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention." Later, as the design of civilian structures, such as bridges and buildings, matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as

2480-399: The U.S. Gulf Coast . As sediments continue to accumulate, the older, more deeply buried sediments begin to undergo diagenesis . This mostly consists of compaction and lithification of the clay and silt particles. Early stages of diagenesis, described as eogenesis , take place at shallow depths (a few tens of meters) and are characterized by bioturbation and mineralogical changes in

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2560-528: The inclined plane (ramp) were known since prehistoric times. The wheel , along with the wheel and axle mechanism, was invented in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) during the 5th millennium BC. The lever mechanism first appeared around 5,000 years ago in the Near East , where it was used in a simple balance scale , and to move large objects in ancient Egyptian technology . The lever was also used in

2640-566: The shadoof water-lifting device, the first crane machine, which appeared in Mesopotamia c.  3000 BC , and then in ancient Egyptian technology c.  2000 BC . The earliest evidence of pulleys date back to Mesopotamia in the early 2nd millennium BC, and ancient Egypt during the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1802 BC). The screw , the last of the simple machines to be invented, first appeared in Mesopotamia during

2720-639: The water wheel and watermill , first appeared in the Persian Empire , in what are now Iraq and Iran, by the early 4th century BC. Kush developed the Sakia during the 4th century BC, which relied on animal power instead of human energy. Hafirs were developed as a type of reservoir in Kush to store and contain water as well as boost irrigation. Sappers were employed to build causeways during military campaigns. Kushite ancestors built speos during

2800-669: The wave base . Thick deposits of shale are found near ancient continental margins and foreland basins . Some of the most widespread shale formations were deposited by epicontinental seas . Black shales are common in Cretaceous strata on the margins of the Atlantic Ocean , where they were deposited in fault -bounded silled basins associated with the opening of the Atlantic during the breakup of Pangaea . These basins were anoxic, in part because of restricted circulation in

2880-412: The 14th century when an engine'er (literally, one who builds or operates a siege engine ) referred to "a constructor of military engines". In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a military machine, i.e. , a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult ). Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g. ,

2960-426: The 1800s included the experiments of Alessandro Volta , Michael Faraday , Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric telegraph in 1816 and the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's equations ) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics . The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated

3040-603: The 36 licensed member institutions of the UK Engineering Council . New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches – for example, Earth systems engineering and management involves a wide range of subject areas including engineering studies , environmental science , engineering ethics and philosophy of engineering . Aerospace engineering covers the design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of aircraft , satellites and rockets . Marine engineering covers

3120-576: The 9th century. In 1206, Al-Jazari invented programmable automata / robots . He described four automaton musicians, including drummers operated by a programmable drum machine , where they could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns. Before the development of modern engineering, mathematics was used by artisans and craftsmen, such as millwrights , clockmakers , instrument makers and surveyors. Aside from these professions, universities were not believed to have had much practical significance to technology. A standard reference for

3200-546: The Antikythera mechanism, required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing , two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are widely used in fields such as robotics and automotive engineering . Ancient Chinese, Greek, Roman and Hunnic armies employed military machines and inventions such as artillery which

3280-484: The Bronze Age between 3700 and 3250 BC. Bloomeries and blast furnaces were also created during the 7th centuries BC in Kush. Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism , an early known mechanical analog computer , and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes , are examples of Greek mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions, as well as

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3360-591: The United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S. Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers , there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. Engineering

3440-409: The aviation pioneers around the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering ) awarded in

3520-421: The black coloration. Because amorphous iron sulfide gradually converts to pyrite , which is not an important pigment, young shales may be quite dark from their iron sulfide content, in spite of a modest carbon content (less than 1%), while a black color in an ancient shale indicates a high carbon content. Most shales are marine in origin, and the groundwater in shale formations is often highly saline . There

3600-651: The busiest times, there was a train going inbound or outbound almost every minute. Six thousand men worked in the cut, drilling holes, placing explosives, controlling steam shovels, and running the dirt trains. They also moved and extended the railroad tracks as the work moved forward. Twice a day work stopped for blasting, and then the steam shovels were moved in to take the loose spoil (dirt and rock) away. More than 600 holes filled with dynamite were fired daily. In all, 27,000 metric tons (60 million pounds) of dynamite were used. In some locations, about 24 metric tons (52,000 lb) of dynamite were planted and detonated for

3680-520: The canal, which was responsible for all of the work between Gatun Lake and the Pedro Miguel locks —most notably, the Culebra Cut. Gaillard brought dedication and quiet, clear-sighted leadership to his difficult, complex task. The scale of the work was massive. Elaborate (multiple) air compressor facilities using some 30 miles of pipe powered hundreds of compressed air drills to bore holes for 400,000 pounds of dynamite per month to blast and fragment

3760-506: The clumps of clay particles produced by flocculation vary in size from a few tens of microns to over 700 microns in diameter. The floccules start out water-rich, but much of the water is expelled from the floccules as the clay minerals bind more tightly together over time (a process called syneresis ). Clay pelletization by organisms that filter feed is important where flocculation is inhibited. Filter feeders produce an estimated 12 metric tons of clay pellets per square kilometer per year along

3840-408: The color of the rock. Red, brown and green colors are indicative of ferric oxide ( hematite – reds), iron hydroxide ( goethite – browns and limonite – yellow), or micaceous minerals ( chlorite , biotite and illite – greens). The color shifts from reddish to greenish as iron in the oxidized ( ferric ) state is converted to iron in the reduced ( ferrous ) state. Black shale results from

3920-571: The design, development, manufacture and operational behaviour of watercraft and stationary structures like oil platforms and ports . Computer engineering (CE) is a branch of engineering that integrates several fields of computer science and electronic engineering required to develop computer hardware and software . Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering ), software design , and hardware-software integration instead of only software engineering or electronic engineering. Geological engineering

4000-407: The development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to

4080-418: The development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty. Chemical engineering developed in the late nineteenth century. Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to

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4160-421: The first commercial piston steam engine in 1712, was not known to have any scientific training. The application of steam-powered cast iron blowing cylinders for providing pressurized air for blast furnaces lead to a large increase in iron production in the late 18th century. The higher furnace temperatures made possible with steam-powered blast allowed for the use of more lime in blast furnaces , which enabled

4240-409: The first half of the 19th century. These included the use of gigs to guide the machining tool over the work and fixtures to hold the work in the proper position. Machine tools and machining techniques capable of producing interchangeable parts lead to large scale factory production by the late 19th century. The United States Census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with

4320-519: The invention of Portland cement . Applied science led to the development of the steam engine. The sequence of events began with the invention of the barometer and the measurement of atmospheric pressure by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643, demonstration of the force of atmospheric pressure by Otto von Guericke using the Magdeburg hemispheres in 1656, laboratory experiments by Denis Papin , who built experimental model steam engines and demonstrated

4400-413: The limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated. Shale Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g., kaolin , Al 2 Si 2 O 5 ( OH ) 4 ) and tiny fragments ( silt -sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite . Shale

4480-592: The mineral dissolved from strained contact points is redeposited in the unstrained pore spaces. The clay minerals may be altered as well. For example, smectite is altered to illite at temperatures of about 55 to 200 °C (130 to 390 °F), releasing water in the process. Other alteration reactions include the alteration of smectite to chlorite and of kaolinite to illite at temperatures between 120 and 150 °C (250 and 300 °F). Because of these reactions, illite composes 80% of Precambrian shales, versus about 25% of young shales. Unroofing of buried shale

4560-433: The narrow Atlantic, and in part because the very warm Cretaceous seas lacked the circulation of cold bottom water that oxygenates the deep oceans today. Most clay must be deposited as aggregates and floccules, since the settling rate of individual clay particles is extremely slow. Flocculation is very rapid once the clay encounters highly saline sea water. Whereas individual clay particles are less than 4 microns in size,

4640-457: The oceans, with a bottom width of 22 meters (72 feet). Digging at Culebra began on January 22, 1881. A combination of disease, underestimation of the problem, and financial difficulties led to the collapse of the French effort, which was bought out by the United States in 1904. The French had excavated some 14,256,000 cubic metres (18,646,000 cu yd) of material from the cut, and had lowered

4720-415: The original open framework of clay particles. The particles become strongly oriented into parallel layers that give the shale its distinctive fabric. Fissility likely develops early in the compaction process, at relatively shallow depth, since fissility does not seem to vary with depth in thick formations. Kaolinite flakes have less tendency to align in parallel layers than other clays, so kaolinite-rich clay

4800-631: The parallel orientation of clay mineral flakes in shale, it breaks into thin layers, often splintery and usually parallel to the otherwise indistinguishable bedding planes . Non-fissile rocks of similar composition and particle size (less than 0.0625 mm) are described as mudstones (1/3 to 2/3 silt particles) or claystones (less than 1/3 silt). Rocks with similar particle sizes but with less clay (greater than 2/3 silt) and therefore grittier are siltstones . Shales are typically gray in color and are composed of clay minerals and quartz grains. The addition of variable amounts of minor constituents alters

4880-479: The power to weight ratio of steam engines made practical steamboats and locomotives possible. New steel making processes, such as the Bessemer process and the open hearth furnace, ushered in an area of heavy engineering in the late 19th century. One of the most famous engineers of the mid-19th century was Isambard Kingdom Brunel , who built railroads, dockyards and steamships. The Industrial Revolution created

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4960-817: The presence of greater than one percent carbonaceous material and indicates a reducing environment. Pale blue to blue-green shales typically are rich in carbonate minerals . Clays are the major constituent of shales and other mudrocks. The clay minerals represented are largely kaolinite , montmorillonite and illite. Clay minerals of Late Tertiary mudstones are expandable smectites , whereas in older rocks (especially in mid-to early Paleozoic shales) illites predominate. The transformation of smectite to illite produces silica , sodium , calcium , magnesium , iron and water. These released elements form authigenic quartz , chert , calcite , dolomite , ankerite , hematite and albite , all trace to minor (except quartz) minerals found in shales and other mudrocks. A typical shale

5040-444: The richest source rocks may contain as much as 40% organic matter. The organic matter in shale is converted over time from the original proteins, polysaccharides , lipids , and other organic molecules to kerogen , which at the higher temperatures found at greater depths of burial is further converted to graphite and petroleum. Before the mid-19th century, the terms slate , shale and schist were not sharply distinguished. In

5120-434: The rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering, the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. Canal building was an important engineering work during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution. John Smeaton

5200-430: The rock of the cut so that it could be excavated by steam shovels , most made by Bucyrus Foundry and Manufacturing Company of Milwaukee. Dozens of spoils trains took the spoil from the shovels to the landfill dumps, about 19 kilometres (12 mi) away. In a typical day, 160 trainloads of material were hauled away from a cut 14 kilometres (9 mi). This workload on the railroads required some skillful co-ordination. At

5280-400: The same time widening it considerably, and they had excavated over 76 million cubic metres (100 million cubic yards) of material. Some 23 million m (30 million cu yd) of this material was additional to the planned excavation, having been brought into the cut by the landslides. Gaillard was promoted to colonel in 1913. One month later, on December 5, he died of

5360-426: The same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. Engineering has existed since ancient times, when humans devised inventions such as the wedge, lever, wheel and pulley, etc. The term engineering is derived from the word engineer , which itself dates back to

5440-433: The sediments, with only slight compaction. Pyrite may be formed in anoxic mud at this stage of diagenesis. Deeper burial is accompanied by mesogenesis , during which most of the compaction and lithification takes place. As the sediments come under increasing pressure from overlying sediments, sediment grains move into more compact arrangements, ductile grains (such as clay mineral grains) are deformed, and pore space

5520-470: The state of mechanical arts during the Renaissance is given in the mining engineering treatise De re metallica (1556), which also contains sections on geology, mining, and chemistry. De re metallica was the standard chemistry reference for the next 180 years. The science of classical mechanics , sometimes called Newtonian mechanics, formed the scientific basis of much of modern engineering. With

5600-505: The summit from 64 meters (210 feet) above sea level to 59 meters (194 feet), over a relatively narrow width. The United States took over on May 4, 1904. Under the leadership of John F. Stevens , and later George Washington Goethals , the American effort started work on a cut that was wider but not as deep, as part of a new plan for an elevated lock -based canal, with a bottom width of 91 metres (299 ft); this would require creation of

5680-414: The transition from charcoal to coke . These innovations lowered the cost of iron, making horse railways and iron bridges practical. The puddling process , patented by Henry Cort in 1784 produced large scale quantities of wrought iron. Hot blast , patented by James Beaumont Neilson in 1828, greatly lowered the amount of fuel needed to smelt iron. With the development of the high pressure steam engine,

5760-587: The use of a piston, which he published in 1707. Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquess of Worcester published a book of 100 inventions containing a method for raising waters similar to a coffee percolator . Samuel Morland , a mathematician and inventor who worked on pumps, left notes at the Vauxhall Ordinance Office on a steam pump design that Thomas Savery read. In 1698 Savery built a steam pump called "The Miner's Friend". It employed both vacuum and pressure. Iron merchant Thomas Newcomen , who built

5840-414: The waters and destroyed organic matter before it could accumulate. The absence of carbonate rock in shale beds reflects the absence of organisms that might have secreted carbonate skeletons, also likely due to an anoxic environment. As a result, about 95% of organic matter in sedimentary rocks is found in shales and other mudrocks. Individual shale beds typically have an organic matter content of about 1%, but

5920-644: Was a steam jack driven by a steam turbine , described in 1551 by Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf in Ottoman Egypt . The cotton gin was invented in India by the 6th century AD, and the spinning wheel was invented in the Islamic world by the early 11th century, both of which were fundamental to the growth of the cotton industry . The spinning wheel was also a precursor to the spinning jenny , which

6000-522: Was a key development during the early Industrial Revolution in the 18th century. The earliest programmable machines were developed in the Muslim world. A music sequencer , a programmable musical instrument , was the earliest type of programmable machine. The first music sequencer was an automated flute player invented by the Banu Musa brothers, described in their Book of Ingenious Devices , in

6080-664: Was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century BC, the trireme , the ballista and the catapult . In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was developed. The earliest practical wind-powered machines, the windmill and wind pump , first appeared in the Muslim world during the Islamic Golden Age , in what are now Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan, by the 9th century AD. The earliest practical steam-powered machine

6160-493: Was first noted on October 4, 1907, followed by the mass wasting of about 500,000 cubic yards (380,000 m) of clay . This slide caused many people to suggest the construction of the Panama Canal would be impossible; Gaillard described the slides as tropical glaciers , made of mud instead of ice. The clay was too soft to be excavated by the steam shovels, and it was therefore largely removed by sluicing it with water from

6240-412: Was in part due to unforeseen oxidation of the underlying iron strata due to water infiltration , which caused weakening and eventually a collapse of the strata. Strain softening of the underlying shale layers of sedimentary units caused continuation of sliding as the strength of the slide post-failure was reduced. The first and largest major slide occurred in 1907 at Cucaracha . The initial crack

6320-530: Was named Gaillard Cut after US Major David du Bose Gaillard , who had led the excavation. After the canal handover to Panama in 2000, the name was changed back to Culebra . In Spanish the cut is known as the Corte Culebra and is also called the Snake Cut . The excavation of the cut was begun by a French venture, led by Ferdinand de Lesseps , which was attempting to build a sea-level canal between

6400-505: Was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer and is often regarded as the "father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbors, and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist . Using a model water wheel, Smeaton conducted experiments for seven years, determining ways to increase efficiency. Smeaton introduced iron axles and gears to water wheels. Smeaton also made mechanical improvements to

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