A causeway is a track, road or railway on the upper point of an embankment across "a low, or wet place, or piece of water". It can be constructed of earth, masonry , wood, or concrete. One of the earliest known wooden causeways is the Sweet Track in the Somerset Levels , England, which dates from the Neolithic age. Timber causeways may also be described as both boardwalks and bridges .
88-545: When first used, the word causeway appeared in a form such as "causey way", making clear its derivation from the earlier form "causey". This word seems to have come from the same source by two different routes. It derives ultimately, from the Latin for heel, calx , and most likely comes from the trampling technique to consolidate earthworks . Originally, the construction of a causeway used earth that had been trodden upon to compact and harden it as much as possible, one layer at
176-499: A computer and specialized software , including optimisation on haul cost and not haul distance (as haul cost is not proportional to haul distance). Earthwork software is generally a subset of CAD software, in which case it often an add-on to a more general CAD package such as AutoCAD . In that case, earthwork software is principally used to calculate cut and fill volumes which are then used for producing material and time estimates. Most products offer additional functionality such as
264-658: A dyke that keeps two bodies of water apart, such as bodies with a different water level on each side, or with salt water on one side and fresh water on the other. This may also be the primary purpose of a structure, the road providing a hardened crest for the dike, slowing erosion in the event of an overflow. It also provides access for maintenance as well perhaps, as a public service. Notable causeways include those that connect Singapore and Malaysia (the Johor-Singapore Causeway ), Bahrain and Saudi Arabia (25-km long King Fahd Causeway ) and Venice to
352-463: A Dutch source in 1772, the king of Dahomey "has made deep ditches around his entire country as well as walls and batteries mounted with cannons he captured at Fida [Whydah]." Thornton suggests these fortifications were mostly built out of wood. Dahomey used a tactic of trench construction against Oyo where its forces withdrew into the trenches after confrontation with the Oyo force. Despite this, Dahomey
440-466: A Portuguese fort with 30 mounted guns at Whydah in 1743 as its bastions collapsed enabling the Dahomey infantry to enter the fort. In 1728, Dahomey forces captured and destroyed a French fort at Whydah by blowing up the magazine that held the fort's ammunition and gunpowder. Another tactic for attacking coastal forts was the burning of nearby villages during a land breeze in order for the wind to carry
528-553: A causeway refers to a roadway supported mostly by earth or stone, while a bridge supports a roadway between piers (which may be embedded in embankments). Some low causeways across shore waters become inaccessible when covered at high tide . The Aztec city-state of Tenochtitlan had causeways supporting roads and aqueducts. One of the oldest engineered roads yet discovered is the Sweet Track in England . Built in 3807 or 3806 BC,
616-752: A coastal port of Dahomey, and retrieved 110 slaves. Describing how he came in possession of the slaves, he wrote in his journal in 1860, From thence I went to see the King of Dahomey. Having agreeably transacted affairs with the Prince we went to the warehouse where they had in confinement four thousand captives in a state of nudity from which they gave me liberty to select one hundred and twenty-five as mine offering to brand them for me, from which I preemptorily [sic] forbid; commenced taking on cargo of negroes, successfully securing on board one hundred and ten. Zora Neale Hurston wrote about her interviews with Oluale Kossola ,
704-434: A cohesive, well-disciplined military. One European said Agaja's standing army consisted of "elite troops, brave and well-disciplined, led by a prince full of valor and prudence, supported by a staff of experienced officers". The army consisted of 15,000 personnel which was divided into right, left, center and reserve; and in each of these was further divided into companies and platoons . In addition to being well trained,
792-407: A form of which it reached English by way of Norman French . The French adjective chaussée carries the meaning of having been given a hardened surface and is used to mean either paved or shod. As a noun chaussée is used on the one hand for a metalled carriageway, and on the other for an embankment with or without a road. Other languages have a noun with similar dual meaning. In Welsh , it
880-705: A major color imbalance (as can be seen in the image at right). Furthermore, the difference in salinity has become so severe that native brine shrimp cannot survive in much of the waters, with the northern part being too salty and the southern part being insufficiently salty. Earthworks (engineering) Earthworks are engineering works created through the processing of parts of the earth's surface involving quantities of soil or unformed rock . An incomplete list of possible temporary or permanent geotechnical shoring structures that may be designed and utilised as part of earthworks: Excavation may be classified by type of material: Excavation may be classified by
968-417: A meter high. These acted as breakwaters , allowing mangroves to grow which is one of the ways the breakwater can be spotted from a distance. Some parts of the causeway are made from the bedrock, but usually the bedrock was used as a base. Coral stone was also used to build up the causeways, with sand and lime being used to cement the cobbles together. However, some of the stones were left loose. In Scotland ,
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#17327651098851056-553: A much higher bridge (or part of a single bridge) in the middle so that taller boats may pass underneath safely. Causeways are most often used to connect the barrier islands with the mainland . In the case of the Courtney Campbell Causeway , however, the mainland ( Hillsborough County ) is connected by a causeway to a peninsula ( Pinellas County ). A well-known causeway is the NASA Causeway connecting
1144-604: A naval blockade against the kingdom and enforcing anti-slavery patrols near its coast. Dahomey was also weakened after failing to invade and capture slaves in Abeokuta , a Yoruba city-state which was founded by the Oyo Empire refugees migrating southward. Dahomey later began experiencing territorial disputes with France which led to the war in 1890 and part of the kingdom becoming a French protectorate. The kingdom fell four years later, when renewed fighting resulted in
1232-402: A permanent corps. In the beginning, the soldiers were criminals pressed into service rather than death. Eventually, the corps was respected enough that King Ghezo ordered every family to send him their daughters, with the fittest being chosen as soldiers. European accounts clarified that seven distinct movements were required to load a Dane gun which took an Amazon 30 seconds in comparison to
1320-655: A schooner called Clotilda , captained by William Foster, arrived in the bay of Mobile, Alabama carrying the last known shipment of slaves to the U.S. In 1858, an American man named Timothy Meaher made a wager with acquaintances that despite the law banning the slave trade, he could safely bring a load of slaves from Africa. He built the Clotilda slave ship and sent William Foster to captain it and retrieve enslaved Africans. Captain William Foster arrived in Ouidah ,
1408-402: A time, often by slaves or flocks of sheep . Today, this work is done by machines. The same technique would have been used for road embankments, raised river banks, sea banks and fortification earthworks. The second derivation route is simply the hard, trodden surface of a path. The name by this route came to be applied to any firmly surfaced road. It is now little-used except in dialect and in
1496-598: A tributary of Dahomey. Another issue of contention was the status of Cotonou , a port the French believed was under their control because of a treaty signed by Dahomey's representative in Whydah . Dahomey ignored all French claims there as well and continued to collect customs from the port. These territorial disputes escalated into the First Franco-Dahomean War in 1890, resulting in French victory. Dahomey
1584-472: A warrior and a statesmen." The kingdom fought the First Franco-Dahomean War and Second Franco-Dahomean War with France. The kingdom was reduced and made a French protectorate in 1894. In 1904, the area became part of a French colony, French Dahomey . In 1958, French Dahomey became the self-governing colony called the Republic of Dahomey and gained full independence in 1960. It was renamed in 1975
1672-410: Is sarn . The Welsh is relevant here, as it also has a verb sarnu , meaning to trample. The trampling and ramming technique for consolidating earthworks was used in fortifications and there is a comparable, outmoded form of wall construction technique, used in such work and known as pisé, a word derived not from trampling but from ramming or tamping. The Welsh word cawsai translates directly to
1760-477: Is a high priority for local, regional, and even national authorities. Causeways can separate populations of wildlife, putting further pressure on endangered species . Causeways can cause a mineral imbalance between portions of a body of water. For example, a causeway built in the Great Salt Lake has caused the northern half of the lake to have much higher salinity, to the point that the two halves show
1848-873: Is big, as here I have also fought many wars in the backlands. After detailing how he defeated the king of the Mahi nation, Adandonzan tells the Portuguese, ...Give me also news about the Wars, and also give me news about the wars with the French nation and the others, it will make me happy to know about it Dahomey became a target of the British Empire 's anti-slavery campaign during the 19th century. The British sent diplomatic missions to Dahomey in an effort to convince King Ghezo to abolish human sacrifice and slave trading. Ghezo did not immediately concede to British demands but attempted to maintain friendly relations with
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#17327651098851936-544: Is the source of their glory and wealth. Their songs celebrate their victories and the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy reduced to slavery. During a diplomatic mission to Dahomey in 1849, Captain Frederick E. Forbes of the Royal Navy received an enslaved girl (later named Sara Forbes Bonetta ) from King Ghezo as a "gift", who would later become a goddaughter to Queen Victoria . During
2024-508: Is usually used due to the amounts of material to be moved — up to millions of cubic metres. Earthwork construction was revolutionized by the development of the ( Fresno ) scraper and other earth-moving machines such as the loader , the dump truck , the grader , the bulldozer , the backhoe , and the dragline excavator . Engineers need to concern themselves with issues of geotechnical engineering (such as soil density and strength) and with quantity estimation to ensure that soil volumes in
2112-593: The American Civil War . Thus, the United States never established any formal diplomatic relations with the Kingdom of Dahomey. The last known slave ship that sailed to the United States secretly and illegally imported 110 slaves from Dahomey, purchased long after the abolition of the slave trade. The story was mentioned in the newspaper The Tarboro Southerner on July 14, 1860. Five days earlier,
2200-569: The American Revolution , the rebelling United Colonies prohibited the international slave trade for a variety of economic, political, and moral reasons depending on the colony. Following the end of the revolution, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson signed the Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves in 1807, which federally outlawed the international slave trade, though domestic slavery itself would persist until
2288-540: The Chassepot Dreyse , Mauser , Snider Enfield , Wanzel , Werndl , Peabody action , Winchester , Spencer , Albini , Robert Jones carbine , French musketoon 1882 and the Mitrailleuse Reffye 1867 . Along with firearms, Dahomey employed mortars . When going into battle, the king would take a secondary position to the field commander with the reason given that if any spirit were to punish
2376-451: The Epe in 1778 and Badagry in 1783. The Dahomean state became widely known for its corps of female soldiers. Their origins are debated; they may have formed from a palace guard or from gbetos (female hunting teams). They were organized around 1729 to fill out the army and make it look larger in battle, armed only with banners. The women reportedly behaved so courageously they became
2464-608: The Fon language . The Kingdom of Dahomey was established around 1600 by the Fon people who had recently settled in the area (or were possibly a result of intermarriage between the Aja people and the local Gedevi). The foundational king for Dahomey is often considered to be Houegbadja (c. 1645–1685), who built the Royal Palaces of Abomey and began raiding and taking over towns outside of
2552-452: The Fon people , of the royal families of the kingdom and is how the kingdom first became known to Europeans. The names Dahomey , Danxome , and Danhome share an origin story, which historian Edna Bay says may be a false etymology . The story goes that Dakodonu , considered the second king in modern kings lists, was granted permission by the Gedevi chiefs, the local rulers, to settle in
2640-604: The Kingdom of Whydah on the Atlantic coast which granted it unhindered access to the tricontinental Atlantic Slave Trade . For much of the middle 19th century, the Kingdom of Dahomey became a key regional state, after eventually ending tributary status to the Oyo Empire . European visitors extensively documented the kingdom, and it became one of the most familiar African nations known to Europeans . The Kingdom of Dahomey
2728-633: The Napoleonic Wars and the subsequent exile of the Portuguese royal family to Brazil , and he expressed remorse that he was not able to help the Portuguese royal family during their war against France. Soon the news that Your Royal Majesty and all the Royal family were made prisoners of the French, who took Lisbon , as well as the King of Spain, started arriving. Some time passed and another vessel came and brought other news that Your Royal Majesty and Our Sovereign Mother Queen of Portugal had left for
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2816-528: The People's Republic of Benin and in 1991 the Republic of Benin . Today, the kingdom continues to exist as a constituent monarchy located within Benin. Its rulers no longer hold any official powers under Benin's constitution, but they retain some political and economic influence. Modern kings participate in important Vodun religious festivals and other traditional ceremonies. Early writings often presented
2904-426: The cuts match those of the fills , while minimizing the distance of movement. In the past, these calculations were done by hand using a slide rule and with methods such as Simpson's rule . Earthworks cost is a function of hauled amount x hauled distance. The goal of mass haul planning is to determine these amounts and the goal of mass haul optimization is to minimize either or both. Now they can be performed with
2992-567: The "legitimate" trade of palm oil. The Dahomey were soon met with victory when they brought down the Oyo Empire and its yoke at Paonignan in 1827. While Brazil 's demand for slaves increased in 1830, the British started a campaign to abolish the slave trade in Africa. The British government began putting significant pressure on King Ghezo in the 1840s to end the slave trade in Dahomey. King Ghezo responded to these requests by emphasizing that he
3080-447: The 50 seconds it took a Dahomean male soldier to load. In order to repress the navies of its neighbors, Dahomey built causeways starting from 1774. During a campaign against Whydah that year, Dahomey was able to force Whydah to fortify itself at an island called Foudou-Cong. Dahomey cut trees which were planted in the water to serve as a causeway and bridge the army's access to the fortified Whydah island. The causeway also obstructed
3168-544: The Abomey Plateau. Source: King Agaja , Houegbadja's grandson, came to the throne in 1708 and began significant expansion of the Kingdom of Dahomey. This expansion was made possible by the superior military force of King Agaja's Dahomey. In contrast to surrounding regions, Dahomey employed a professional standing army numbering around ten thousand. What the Dahomey lacked in numbers, they made up for in discipline and superior arms. In 1724, Agaja conquered Allada ,
3256-421: The Abomey Plateau. Dakodonu requested additional land from a prominent chief named Dan (or Da) to which the chief responded sarcastically, "Should I open up my belly and build you a house in it?" For this insult, Dakodonu killed Dan and began the construction of his palace on the spot. The name of the kingdom was derived from the incident: Dan meaning "chief", xo meaning "belly", and me meaning "inside of", in
3344-594: The British by encouraging the growth of new trade in palm oil instead. In 1851, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade against Dahomey, forcing Ghezo to sign a treaty in 1852 that immediately abolished the export of slaves. This was broken when slave trading resumed in 1857 and 1858. Historian Martin Meredith quotes Ghezo telling the British: The slave trade has been the ruling principle of my people. It
3432-651: The City of Bahia, under the protection of the English and the Portuguese Navy. Then more time passed and another vessel brought news that you have moved to Rio de Janeiro , where we know that the Duke of Cadaval deceased, for which I feel sorry and give you my condolences...what I feel the most is to no longer be the neighbour of Our Majesty, and not being able to walk on firm land to give you a help with my arm, so my wish
3520-406: The Dahomey army under Agaja was also very well armed. The Dahomey army favored imported European weapons as opposed to traditional weapons. For example, they used European flintlock muskets in long-range combat and imported steel swords and cutlasses in close combat. The Dahomey army also possessed twenty-five cannons. By the late 19th century, Dahomey had a large arsenal of weapons. These included
3608-537: The English word 'causeway'; it is possible that, with Welsh being a lineal linguistic descendant of the original native British tongues, the English word derives from the Welsh. A transport corridor that is carried instead on a series of arches, perhaps approaching a bridge, is a viaduct ; a short stretch of viaduct is called an overpass . The distinction between the terms causeway and viaduct becomes blurred when flood-relief culverts are incorporated, though generally
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3696-404: The Oyo empire. Tegbesu, also spelled as Tegbessou, was King of Dahomey, in present-day Benin, from 1740 until 1774. Tegbesu was not the oldest son of King Agaja (1708–1740), but was selected following his father's death after winning a succession struggle with a brother. King Agaja had significantly expanded the Kingdom of Dahomey during his reign, notably conquering Whydah in 1727. This increased
3784-410: The Oyo from 1732 until 1823. The city-state of Porto-Novo , under the protection of Oyo, and Dahomey had a long-standing rivalry largely over control of the slave trade along the coast. The rise of Abeokuta in the 1840s created another power rivaling Dahomey, largely by creating a safe haven for people from the slave trade. Notable Yoruba people who were captured by Dahomey in slave raids following
3872-668: The ability to takeoff terrain elevation from plans (using contour lines and spot heights ); produce shaded cut and fill maps; produce cross sections and visualize terrain in 3D. The means by which volumes are calculated in software can differ quite considerably leading to potentially different results with the same input data. Many software products use methods based on triangulated irregular networks (TINS) and triangular prism volume algorithms, however other calculation methods are in use based on rationalizing elevations into high density grids or cross-sections. A few programs are specialised in earthworks transport optimization and planning
3960-534: The army of Dahomey in 1743 during its conquest of the city, so King Tegbesu desired to renew relations with Portugal. Dahomey sent at least five embassies to Portugal and Brazil during the years of 1750, 1795, 1805, 1811 and 1818, with the goal of negotiating the terms of the Atlantic slave trade. These missions created an official correspondence between the kings of Dahomey and the kings of Portugal, and gifts were exchanged between them. The Portuguese Crown paid for
4048-402: The collapse of the Oyo Empire include Sara Forbes Bonetta (Aina), Cudjoe Lewis (Oluale Kossola), Matilda McCrear (Abake), Redoshi , and Seriki Williams Abass (Ifaremilekun Fagbemi). The military of the Kingdom of Dahomey was divided into two units: the right and the left. The right was controlled by the migan and the left was controlled by the mehu . At least by the time of Agaja ,
4136-407: The commander for decisions it should not be the king. Dahomey units were drilled constantly. They fired on command, employed countermarch , and formed extended lines from deep columns. Tactics such as covering fire , frontal attacks and flanking movements were used in the warfare of Dahomey. The Dahomey Amazons, a unit of all-female soldiers, is one of the most unusual aspects of the military of
4224-420: The construction works. Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey ( / d ə ˈ h oʊ m i / ) was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. It developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a regional power in the 18th century by expanding south to conquer key cities like Whydah belonging to
4312-428: The exception of the kpojito , were headed by men—had a female counterpart to complement them. The migan— a combination of mi (our) and gan (chief)—was a primary consul for the king, a key judicial figure, and served as the head executioner. The mehu was similarly a key administrative officer who managed the palaces and the affairs of the royal family, economic matters, and the areas to the south of Allada (making
4400-562: The expenses travel and accommodation expenses of Dahomey's ambassadors, who traveled between Lisbon and Salvador, Bahia . The embassies of 1805 and 1811 brought letters from King Adandozan , who had imprisoned Portuguese subjects in the Dahomean capital of Abomey and requested for Portugal to trade exclusively at Ouidah. Portugal promised to answer to his demands if he released the prisoners. A long and detailed letter from King Adandonzan dated 9 October 1810 shows that he had knowledge of
4488-557: The festival celebrations known as the Annual Customs of Dahomey . The Annual Customs of Dahomey involved significant collection and distribution of gifts and tribute, religious Vodun ceremonies, military parades, and discussions by dignitaries about the future for the kingdom. In the 1840s, Dahomey began to face decline with British pressure to abolish the slave trade, which included the British Royal Navy imposing
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#17327651098854576-517: The flames toward the fort. This tactic was first revealed by a British commander at Whydah in 1728, who countered it by burning the nearby villages during a sea breeze to prevent the Dahomeyan army from burning the villages during a land breeze. As a result of the threat posed by Oyo in the 18th century, the state built fortifications of its own with the help of a French officer from whom they learnt field fortification and artillery. According to
4664-539: The growth of the Atlantic slave trade , and it became known to Europeans as a major supplier of slaves. Dahomey was a highly militaristic society constantly organised for warfare; it engaged in wars and raids against neighboring nations and sold captives into the Atlantic slave trade in exchange for European goods such as rifles , gunpowder , fabrics , cowrie shells , tobacco , pipes , and alcohol . Other captives became slaves in Dahomey, where they worked on royal plantations or were killed in human sacrifices during
4752-522: The harbour, on the orders of Winston Churchill . The Estrada do Istmo connecting the islands of Taipa and Coloane in Macau was initially built as a causeway. The sea on both sides of the causeway then became shallower as a result of silting, and mangroves began to conquer the area. Later, land reclamation took place on both sides of the road and the area has subsequently been named Cotai and become home to several casino complexes. Various causeways in
4840-504: The honorary title of Chachá, vice-king of Ajudá, and a monopoly on the exportation of slaves. In 1861, the kingdom of Porto-Novo , one of Dahomey's tributaries, was attacked by the British Royal Navy , which was participating in anti-slaving patrols. Porto-Novo asked for protection from France and became a French protectorate as a result in 1863. This status was rejected by King Behanzin , who still declared Porto-Novo to be
4928-409: The human sacrifice of slaves and removed the death penalty for certain lesser offenses, such as adultery. Despite the kingdom's history of brutality, King Ghezo was often characterized as honorable and unconquerable, even by his enemies. British missionary Thomas Birch Freeman also depicted him as "one of the most remarkable men of his age, whether we consider him in his private capacity as a man, or as
5016-409: The king. According to one oral tradition, as part of the tribute owed by Dahomey to Oyo, Agaja had to give to Oyo one of his sons. The story claims that only Hwanjile, of all of Agaja's wives, was willing to allow her son to go to Oyo. This act of sacrifice, according to the oral tradition made Tegbesu, was favored by Agaja. Agaja reportedly told Tegbesu that he was the future king, but his brother Zinga
5104-603: The kingdom as an absolute monarchy led by a despotic king. These depictions were often deployed as arguments by different sides in the slave trade debates, mainly in the United Kingdom , and as such were probably exaggerations. Recent historical work has emphasized the limits of monarchical power in the Kingdom of Dahomey. Historian John C. Yoder, with attention to the Great Council in the kingdom, argued that its activities do not "imply that Dahomey's government
5192-558: The kingdom had developed a standing army that remained encamped wherever the king was. Soldiers in the army were recruited as young as seven or eight years old, initially serving as shield carriers for regular soldiers. After years of apprenticeship and military experience, they were allowed to join the army as regular soldiers. To further incentivize the soldiers, each soldier received bonuses paid in cowry shells for each enemy they killed or captured in battle. This combination of lifelong military experience and monetary incentives resulted in
5280-413: The kingdom. At the end of the discussions, the king would declare the consensus of the group. Key positions in the King's court included the migan (Prime Minister), the mehu (Finance Minister), the yovogan , the tokpo (Minister of Agriculture), the agan (general of the army), the kpojito (or queen mother), and later the chacha (or viceroy) of Whydah. Each of these cabinet positions—which, with
5368-411: The kingdom. Unlike other regional powers, the military of Dahomey did not have a significant cavalry (like the Oyo empire) or naval power (which prevented expansion along the coast). From the 18th century, the state could obtain naval support from Ardra where they had created a subordinate dynasty after conquering the state in the early 18th century. Dahomey enlisted the services of Ardra's navy against
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#17327651098855456-414: The largest part of the income for the king. In addition, Tegbesu's rule is the one with the first significant kpojito or mother of the leopard with Hwanjile in that role. The kpojito became a prominently important person in Dahomey royalty. Hwanjile, in particular, is said to have changed dramatically the religious practices of Dahomey by creating two new deities and more closely tying worship to that of
5544-436: The last king, Béhanzin , to be overthrown and the country annexed into French West Africa . French Dahomey would gain independence in 1960 as the Republic of Dahomey , which would rename itself Benin in 1975. The Kingdom of Dahomey was referred to by many different names and has been written in a variety of ways, including Danxome , Danhome , and Fon . The name Fon relates to the dominant ethnic and language group,
5632-468: The last survivor of the Clotilda , in her book Barracoon . A notable descendant of a slave from this ship is Ahmir Khalib Thompson , an American music artist known as Questlove. Mr. Thompson's story is depicted in the PBS Television show Finding Your Roots [Season 4, Episode 9]. The Oyo Empire engaged in frequent conflicts with the Kingdom of Dahomey and Dahomey became a tributary of
5720-808: The mainland, all of which carry roadways and railways. In the Netherlands there are a number of prominent dikes which also double as causeways, including the Afsluitdijk , Brouwersdam , and Markerwaarddijk . In the Republic of Panama a causeway connects the islands of Perico, Flamenco, and Naos to Panama City on the mainland. It also serves as a breakwater for ships entering the Panama Canal . Causeways are also common in Florida , where low bridges may connect several human-made islands , often with
5808-482: The movement of a 700 canoe force belonging to Whydah. As a result, the Whydah army had to survive on the boats for months sustaining its forces with fish diet. According to Thornton , Dahomey used this strategy of siege causeways again in 1776 against another opponent state where it built 3 bridges to connect the island housing the opponent forces. Coastal belligerents opposing Dahomey allied with European forts against
5896-526: The names of roads which were originally notable for their solidly made surface. The 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states: "causey, a mound or dam, which is derived, through the Norman-French caucie (cf. modern chaussée ), from the late Latin via calciata , a road stamped firm with the feet ( calcare , to tread)." The word is comparable in both meanings with the French chaussée , from
5984-464: The norm, with the kingship typically (but not always) going to the oldest son. The king was selected largely through discussion and decision in the meetings of the Great Council, although how this operated was not always clear. The Great Council brought together a host of different dignitaries from throughout the kingdom yearly to meet at the Annual Customs of Dahomey . Discussions would be lengthy and included members, both men and women, from throughout
6072-420: The origin for the royal family according to oral tradition, and in 1727 he conquered Whydah . This increased size of the kingdom, particularly along the Atlantic coast, and increased power made Dahomey into a regional power. The result was near constant warfare with the main regional state, the Oyo Empire , from 1728 until 1740. The warfare with the Oyo empire resulted in Dahomey assuming a tributary status to
6160-542: The position key to contact with Europeans). The relations between Dahomey and other countries were complex and heavily impacted by the transatlantic slave trade . In 1750, the Kingdom of Dahomey sent a diplomatic mission to Salvador , Portuguese colony of Brazil in order to strengthen diplomatic relations with this Portuguese colony following an incident which led to the expulsion of Portuguese-Brazilian diplomatic authorities in 1743. Other Dahomey missions were sent to Portuguese colony of Brazil from 1795 to 1805 with
6248-456: The purpose of strengthening relations with Portuguese colonial authorities and slave buyers residing in Brazilian territory, ensuring that they maintained an interest in purchasing enslaved people supplied by Dahomey rather than rival kingdoms. It is also recorded that in 1823, the Kingdom of Dahomey formally recognized Brazil's independence , making it one of the first political entities in
6336-678: The purpose: Typical earthworks include road construction , railway beds , causeways , dams , levees , canals , and berms . Other common earthworks are land grading to reconfigure the topography of a site, or to stabilize slopes. In military engineering , earthworks are, more specifically, types of fortifications constructed from soil. Although soil is not very strong, it is cheap enough that huge quantities can be used, generating formidable structures. Examples of older earthwork fortifications include moats , sod walls , motte-and-bailey castles, and hill forts . Modern examples include trenches and berms . Heavy construction equipment
6424-446: The size of the kingdom and increased both domestic dissent and regional opposition. Tegbessou ruled over Dahomey at a point where it needed to increase its legitimacy over those whom it had recently conquered. As a result, Tegbesu is often credited with a number of administrative changes in the kingdom in order to establish the legitimacy of the kingdom. The slave trade increased significantly during Tegbessou's reign and began to provide
6512-633: The skirmish known as Clense the Calsey, or Cleanse the Causeway , took place in the High Street of Edinburgh in 1520. In the 18th century, Dahomey lacked an effective navy hence it built causeways for naval purposes starting in 1774. The modern embankment may be constructed within a cofferdam : two parallel steel sheet pile or concrete retaining walls , anchored to each other with steel cables or rods. This construction may also serve as
6600-527: The slave trade. King Ghezo's reign was marked by great battles and significant changes to the empire, including the elevation of the Agojie . These "Dahomey Amazon" were pivotal to the defeat of Oyo Empire. His reign also cemented the Kingdom of Dahomey as one of the most powerful African kingdoms that stood against British attempts, with Egba support, at converting people to Christianity, and maintained their traditional religion , known as Vodun . He abolished
6688-498: The slave trade. King Ghezo implemented new military strategies, which allowed them to take a physical stand against the Oyo, who were also a major competitor in the slave trade. He also put stipulations on Dahomey's participation in the slave trade. Under his reign, no longer would the Dahomey be traded, as they were under the leadership of his brother, Adandozan . Dahomey would focus on capturing their enemies and trading them instead. King Ghezo sought to eventually lead his people toward
6776-516: The state. Dahomey was able to capture Dutch and Portuguese forts in the 18th century through the use of ladders and sappers . Thornton writes that in 1737, Dahomey used scale ladders against the Dutch fort in Keta simultaneously as its sappers built a tunnel under the fort's bastion causing it to collapse when its defenders fired an artillery round within the bastion. A similar tactic was employed against
6864-664: The town of Titusville on the Florida mainland to the rocket-launching facility at the Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island . The Churchill Barriers in Orkney are some of the most notable sets of causeways in Europe. Constructed in waters up to 18 metres deep, the four barriers link five islands on the eastern side of the natural harbour at Scapa Flow . They were built during World War II as military defences for
6952-541: The track was a walkway consisting mainly of planks of oak laid end-to-end, supported by crossed pegs of ash , oak, and lime , driven into the underlying peat. In East Africa , the Husuni Kubwa (the "Great Fort"), situated outside the town of Kilwa , was an early 14th-century sultan's palace and emporium that contained causeways and platforms at the entrance of the Harbour made from blocks of reef and coral nearly
7040-513: The village. The King of Dahomey ( Ahosu in the Fon language ) was the sovereign power of the kingdom. All of the kings claimed to be part of the Alladaxonou dynasty, claiming descent from the royal family in Allada . Much of the succession rules and administrative structures were created early by Kings Houegbadja , Akaba , and Agaja . Succession through the male members of the line was
7128-435: The winds and rains of approaching tropical storms —as well as waves generated by the storm in the surrounding bodies of water—make traversing causeways problematic at best and impossibly dangerous during the fiercest parts of the storms. For this reason (and related reasons, such as the need to minimize traffic jams on both the roads approaching the causeway and the causeway itself), emergency evacuation of island residents
7216-399: The world to do so. The transatlantic slave trade between Brazil and Dahomey remained intense even under pressure from the United Kingdom for its abolition . Francisco Félix de Sousa , a former enslaved person and later a major slave trader in the Dahomey region, became a politically influential figure in that kingdom after the ascent of Guezo to the Dahomean throne. He was granted
7304-500: The world: Unlike tunnels or bridges, causeways do not permit shipping through the strait which can cause problems. In some cases, causeways were built with "gates" or other facilities to permit shipping to pass through. Causeways affect currents and may therefore be involved in beach erosion or changed deposition patterns; this effect has been a problem at the Hindenburgdamm in northern Germany. During hurricane seasons,
7392-542: Was an important regional power that had an organized domestic economy built on conquest and slave labor , significant international trade and diplomatic relations with Europeans , a centralized administration, taxation systems, and an organized military. Notable in the kingdom were significant artwork, an all-female military unit called the Dahomey Amazons by European observers, and the elaborate religious practices of Vodun . The growth of Dahomey coincided with
7480-439: Was democratic or even that her politics approximated those of nineteenth-century European monarchies. Such evidence supports the thesis that governmental decisions were molded by conscious responses to internal political pressures as well as by executive fiat." The primary political divisions revolved around villages with chiefs and administrative posts appointed by the king and acting as his representatives to adjudicate disputes in
7568-481: Was forced to sign a treaty surrendering Porto-Novo and Cotonou to the French. It later returned to raiding the area and disregarded French complaints, triggering the Second Franco-Dahomean War in 1892. The kingdom was defeated in 1894, it was annexed into the French colonial empire as French Dahomey , and King Behanzin was exiled to Algeria . The Portuguese fort at Ouidah was destroyed by
7656-498: Was still the official heir. When King Ghezo ascended the throne in 1818, he was confronted by two immediate obstacles: the Kingdom of Dahomey was in political turmoil, and it was financially unstable. First, he needed to gain political independence by removing the tributary yoke that the Yoruba empire of Oyo had over the Dahomey since 1748. Secondly, he needed to revitalize the Dahomey economy. Both of these objectives relied on
7744-430: Was unable to end the slave trade because of domestic pressure. He explained to them that the entire region had become dependent on the slave trading, so ending immediately would destabilize his kingdom and lead to anarchy. King William Dappa Pepple of Bonny and King Kosoko of Lagos took the same stance toward the British requests. Instead, King Ghezo proposed an expansion of the palm oil trade and gradual abolition of
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