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174-472: The Great Salt Lake is the largest saltwater lake in the Western Hemisphere and the eighth-largest terminal lake in the world. It lies in the northern part of the U.S. state of Utah and has a substantial impact upon the local climate , particularly through lake-effect snow . It is a remnant of Lake Bonneville , a prehistoric body of water that covered much of western Utah. The area of

348-473: A 10-mile (16 km) access road between the town of Lakeside and the pumping station. This pumping project was designed to increase the surface area of the Great Salt Lake and thus increase the rate of water evaporation. The pumps drove some of the water of the Great Salt Lake into the 320,000 acres (1,300 km) Newfoundland Evaporation Basin in the desert west of the lake. A weir in the dike at

522-530: A Swiss-Mexican (and later American by treaty ) immigrant and founder of the fort, received Frémont gladly and refitted his expedition party. While at Sutter's Fort, Frémont talked to American settlers, who were growing numerous, and found that Mexican authority over California was very weak. Leaving Sutter's Fort, Frémont and his men headed south along the eastern edge of the San Joaquin Valley and crossed Tehachapi Pass and Antelope Valley, struck

696-560: A blazing trail through Nevada straight to California, having a rendezvous with his men from the split party at Walker Lake in west-central Nevada. Taking 16 men, Frémont split his party again, arriving at Sutter's Fort in the Sacramento Valley on December 9. Frémont promptly sought to stir up patriotic enthusiasm among the American settlers there. He promised that if war with Mexico started, his military force would protect

870-399: A book of musing and poetry, Our Inland Sea . From November 1895 to March 1896, he was alone. In March, a few guano sifters arrived to harvest and sell the guano of the nesting birds as fertilizer . Lambourne included musings about these guano sifters in his work. Lambourne left the island early in the winter of 1896 along with the first group of guano sifters. In the early 1930s, there was

1044-583: A civil government." Kearny, who had earlier trimmed his forces from 300 to 100 dragoons, based upon Kit Carson 's dispatches he was carrying to Washington, stating that Stockton and Fremont had successfully taken control of California. Unknown to Carson at this time, the Californians had revolted, which would lead Kearny to a disastrous attack on waiting Mexican lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual , losing 19 men killed and being himself seriously lanced. He

1218-571: A crucial role as a keystone species by regulating phytoplankton and bacterioplankton levels. The Artemia species also serves as an intermediate host for helminth parasites that affect migratory water birds like flamingos, grebes, gulls, shorebirds, and ducks. Vertebrates in saline lakes include certain fish and bird species, though they are sensitive to fluctuations in salinity. Many saline lakes are also alkaline, which imposes physiological challenges for fish, especially in managing nitrogenous waste excretion. Fish species vary by lake; for instance,

1392-413: A declaration of war with Mexico was imminent. On May 9, 1846, Native Americans ambushed his expedition party in retaliation for numerous killings of Native Americans that Frémont's men had engaged in along the trail, killing three members of Frémont's party in their sleep, including a Native American who was traveling with Frémont. Frémont retaliated by attacking a Klamath fishing village named Dokdokwas

1566-482: A deep brine layer there. Although brine shrimp can be found in the arm of the lake north of the causeway, studies conducted by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources indicate that these are likely transient. Populations of brine shrimp are mostly restricted to the lake's south arm. In the two bays that receive most of the lake's freshwater inflows, Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay, the diversity of organisms

1740-487: A detachment of Osos, totaling 125 men, rode south to San Rafael , searching for Captain Joaquin de la Torre and his lancers, rumored to have been ordered by Castro to attack Sonoma, but was unable to find them. On June 28, General Castro, on the other side of San Francisco Bay, sent a row boat across to Point San Pablo on the shores of San Rafael with a message for de la Torre. Kit Carson, Granville Swift and Sam Neal rode to

1914-492: A dramatic life of remarkable successes and dismal failures. John Charles Frémont was born on January 21, 1813, the son of Charles Frémon, a French-Canadian immigrant school-teacher, and Anne Beverley Whiting, the youngest daughter of socially prominent Virginia planter Col. Thomas Whiting. At age 17, Anne married Major John Pryor , a wealthy Richmond resident in his early 60s. In 1810, Pryor hired Frémon to tutor his young wife Anne. Pryor confronted Anne when he found out she

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2088-459: A duel. After an arrangement to postpone the duel, Kearny rode to Los Angeles and refused Frémont's request to join troops in Mexico. Ordered to march with Kearny's army back east, Frémont was arrested on August 22, 1847, when they arrived at Fort Leavenworth . He was charged with mutiny, disobedience of orders, assumption of powers, and several other military offenses. Ordered by Kearny to report to

2262-494: A few of the men left for California via an established southern trade route. Edward and Richard Kern joined J.H. Simpson's military reconnaissance expedition to the Navajos in 1849, and gave the American public some of its earliest authentic graphic images of the people and landscape of Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Colorado; with views of Canyon de Chelly , Chaco Canyon , and El Morro (Inscription Rock) . In 1850, Frémont

2436-468: A former Governor of Vermont , was appointed chairman of the federal commission created to settle Mexican land titles in California; he traveled to San Francisco to begin his work, and his son-in-law Trenor W. Park traveled with him. Frémont hired Park as a managing partner to oversee the day-to-day activities of the estate, and Mexican laborers to wash out the gold on his property in exchange for

2610-416: A habitat for millions of native birds, brine shrimp , shorebirds , and waterfowl , including the largest staging population of Wilson's phalarope in the world. The Great Salt Lake is a remnant of a much larger prehistoric lake called Lake Bonneville . At its greatest extent, Lake Bonneville spanned 22,400 square miles (58,000 km), nearly as large as present-day Lake Michigan , and roughly ten times

2784-525: A health advisory warning hunters not to eat common goldeneye or northern shoveler , two species of duck found in the lake. It has been stated that this does not pose a risk to other recreational users of the lake. After later studies were conducted with a larger number of birds, the advisories were revised and another was added for cinnamon teal . Seven other species of duck were studied and found to have levels of mercury below EPA guidelines, thus being determined safe to eat. A study in 2010 suggested that

2958-554: A large federal bird refuge on the Great Salt Lake's shores. Wetland/wildlife management areas include the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge ; Gillmor Sanctuary; Great Salt Lake Shore lands Preserve; Salt Creek, Public Shooting Grounds, Harold Crane, Locomotive Springs , Ogden Bay, Timpie Springs, and Farmington Bay Waterfowl Management Areas. Several islands in the lake provide critical nesting areas for various birds. Access to Hat, Gunnison, and Cub islands

3132-420: A level of 4,200 ft (1,300 m) above sea level as an official state policy, among other interventions. University of Utah researchers proposed a level between 4,198 and 4,205 feet. A non-binding resolution in the state legislature to adopt 4,198 feet was voted down and governor Spencer Cox called it "dumb". The Great Salt Lake lends its name to Salt Lake City , originally named "Great Salt Lake City" by

3306-693: A longstanding legend of a " Buenaventura River " that flowed out the Great Basin across the Sierra Nevada. After exploring Utah Lake, Frémont traveled by way of the Pueblo until he reached Bent's Fort on the Arkansas River. In August 1844, Frémont and his party finally arrived back in St. Louis, ending the journey that lasted over one year. His wife Jessie and Frémont returned to Washington, where

3480-552: A military expedition of 300 men to capture Santa Barbara . In September, Mexican Californians unwilling to be ruled by the United States, under José María Flores , fought back and retook Los Angeles , driving out Americans. In December 1846, U.S. Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny arrived in California under "orders from President Polk " after taking New Mexico , then to march onto "California where, "Should you conquer and take possession of California, you will establish

3654-748: A northwest passage up the Missouri River to the Pacific Ocean . President Thomas Jefferson had envisioned a Western empire, and also sent the Pike Expedition under Zebulon Pike to explore the southwest. American and European fur trappers , including Peter Skene Ogden and Jedediah Smith , explored much of the American West in the 1820s. Frémont, who would later be known as The Pathfinder , carried on this tradition of Western overland exploration, building on and adding to

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3828-461: A peninsula in another, or an island in a low water year may be covered during another year. According to the U.S. Department of the Interior and the U.S. Geological Survey , "there are eight named islands in the lake that have never been totally submerged during historic time. All have been connected to the mainland by exposed shoals during periods of low water." In addition to these eight islands,

4002-551: A percentage of the profits. Frémont acquired large landholdings in San Francisco, and while developing his Las Mariposas gold ranch, he lived a wealthy lifestyle in Monterey. Legal issues, however, soon mounted over property and mineral rights. Disputes erupted as squatters moved on Frémont's Las Mariposas land mining for gold. There was question whether the three mining districts on the land were public domain, while

4176-456: A plan to advance their vision of Manifest Destiny. With a keen interest in the potential of railroads, Sen. Benton had sought support from the Senate for a railroad connecting St. Louis to San Francisco along the 38th parallel, the latitude which both cities approximately share. After Benton failed to secure federal funding, Frémont secured private funding. In October 1848 he embarked with 35 men up

4350-561: A possible tourist attraction. Pink Floyd was last seen in Idaho, in the area of Camas National Wildlife Refuge in 2005. During a survey in the mid-1990s, U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service researchers discovered a high level of methylmercury in the Great Salt Lake with 25 nanograms per liter of water. For comparison, a fish consumption advisory was issued at the Florida Everglades after water there

4524-561: A project to dam off a third of the lake with dikes on the east side north of Salt Lake City to make a freshwater reservoir for drinking and irrigation. The project was abandoned before it got beyond the planning stage. The causeway across the lake was built in the 1950s by the Morrison-Knudsen construction company for the Southern Pacific Railroad as a replacement to a previously built wooden trestle, which

4698-468: A proud, reserved, restless loner who although self-disciplined, was ready to prove himself and unwilling to play by the rules. The young Frémont was considered to be "precious, handsome, and daring," having the ability of obtaining protectors. A lawyer, John W. Mitchell, provided for Frémont's early education whereupon Frémont in May 1829 entered Charleston College , teaching at intervals in the countryside, but

4872-508: A rancher, borrowing money from his father-in-law Benton and Senator John Dix to construct a house, corral, and barn. Frémont ordered a sawmill and had it shipped by the Aspinwall steamer Fredonia to Las Mariposas . Frémont was informed by Sonora Mexicans that gold had been discovered on his property. Frémont was instantly a wealthy man, a five-mile quartz vein produced hundreds of pounds of placer gold each month. In 1851 Hiland Hall ,

5046-543: A rancheria (see Sutter Buttes massacre ). In early June, believing war with Mexico to be a virtual certainty, Frémont joined the Sacramento Valley insurgents in a "silent partnership", rather than head back to St. Louis, as originally planned. On June 10, instigated by Frémont, four men from Frémont's party and 10 rebel volunteers seized 170 horses intended for Castro's Army and returned them to Frémont's camp. According to historian H. H. Bancroft, Frémont incited

5220-589: A roughly sewn flag and formed the Bear Flag Republic , electing William Ide as their leader. The four prisoners were then taken to Frémont's camp 80 miles (130 km) away. On June 15, the prisoners and escorts arrived at Frémont's new camp on the American River, but Frémont publicly denied responsibility for the raid. The escorts then removed the prisoners south to Sutter's Fort, where they were imprisoned by Sutter under Frémont's orders. It

5394-475: A third expedition for Frémont. The plan for Frémont under the War Department was to survey the central Rockies, the Great Salt Lake region, and part of the Sierra Nevada. Back in St. Louis, Frémont organized an armed surveying expedition of 60 men, with Carson as a guide, and two distinguished scouts, Joseph Walker and Alexis Godey . Working with Benton and Secretary of Navy George Bancroft , Frémont

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5568-655: A united front and a fresh face for the party, the Republicans nominated Frémont for president over other candidates, and conservative William L. Dayton of New Jersey , for vice president, at their June 1856 convention held in Philadelphia. The Republican campaign used the slogan "Free Soil, Free Men, and Frémont" to crusade for free farms (homesteads) and against the Slave Power . Frémont, popularly known as The Pathfinder , however, had voter appeal and remained

5742-472: A winter passage across the mountainous west, Frémont was optimistic that a railroad along the 38th Parallel was viable and that winter travel along the line would be possible through the Rocky Mountains. In 1856, Frémont (age 43) became the first presidential candidate of the newly-formed Republican Party . The Republicans, whose party had been established in 1854, were united in their opposition to

5916-585: Is influenced by processes such as evaporation and deposition. Salt lakes face serious conservation challenges due to climate change, pollution and water diversion. The primary method of classification for salt lakes involves assessing the chemical composition of the water within the lakes, specifically its salinity, pH , and the dominant ions present. Subsaline lakes have a salinity lower than that of seawater but higher than freshwater , typically ranging from 0.5 to 3 grams per liter (g/L). Hyposaline lakes exhibit salinities from 0.5 to 3 g/L, which allows for

6090-403: Is much higher. Salinities in these bays can approach that of fresh water when the spring snow melt occurs, and this allows a variety of bacteria, algae and invertebrates to proliferate in the nutrient-rich water. The abundance of invertebrates such as gnat larvae ( chironomids ) and back swimmers (Trichocorixa) are fed upon extensively by the huge shorebird and waterfowl populations that utilize

6264-501: Is not limited to the Aral Sea; salt lakes around the world are shrinking due to excessive water diversion, dam construction, pollution, urbanization, and rising temperatures associated with climate change. The resulting declines cause severe disruptions to local ecosystems and biodiversity, degrades the environment, threatens economic stability, and displaces communities dependent on these lakes for resources and livelihood. In Utah, if

6438-573: Is strictly limited by the State of Utah in an effort to protect nesting colonies of American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos). The islands within the Great Salt Lake also provide habitat for lizard and mammalian wildlife and a variety of plant species. Some species may have been extirpated from the islands. For example, a number of explorers who visited the area in the mid-1800s (e.g. Emmanuel Domenech , Howard Stansbury , Jules Rémy ) noted an abundance of yellow-flowered "onions" on several of

6612-475: The Bear Flag Republic , now totaling 428 men. Stockton incorporated the California Battalion into the U.S. military giving them soldiers pay. Frémont and about 160 of his troops went by ship to San Diego, and with Stockton's marines took Los Angeles on August 13. Frémont afterwards went north to recruit more Californians into his battalion. In late 1846, under orders from Stockton, Frémont led

6786-770: The Kansas River on June 15, 1842, following the Platte River to the South Pass, and starting from Green River he explored the Wind River Range . Frémont climbed a 13,745-foot mountain (4,189 m), Frémont's Peak , planted an American flag, claiming the Rocky Mountains and the West for the United States. On Frémont's return trip he and his party carelessly rafted the swollen Platte River losing much of his equipment. His five-month exploration, however,

6960-520: The Mexican–American War , he was a major in the U.S. Army and took control of a portion of California north of San Francisco from the short-lived California Republic in 1846. During this time, he led several massacres against indigenous peoples in California as part of the California genocide . Frémont was court-martialed and convicted of mutiny and insubordination after a conflict over who

7134-511: The Missouri , Kansas and Arkansas rivers to explore the terrain. The artists and brothers Edward Kern and Richard Kern, and their brother Benjamin Kern, were part of the expedition, but Frémont was unable to obtain the valued service of Kit Carson as guide as in his previous expeditions. On his party's reaching Bent's Fort , he was strongly advised by most of the trappers against continuing

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7308-674: The Oregon Trail , the Oregon Country , the Great Basin , and Sierra Nevada Mountains to California. Through his power and influence, Senator Benton obtained for Frémont the leadership, funding, and patronage of three expeditions. The opening of the American West began in 1804, when the Lewis and Clark Expedition (led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark ) started exploration of the new Louisiana Purchase territory to find

7482-901: The Panic of 1873 . Frémont served as Governor of the Arizona Territory from 1878 to 1881. After his resignation as governor, he retired from politics and died destitute in New York City in 1890. Historians portray Frémont as controversial, impetuous, and contradictory. Some scholars regard him as a military hero of significant accomplishment, while others view him as a failure who repeatedly defeated his own best interests. The keys to Frémont's character and personality, several historians argue, lie in his having been born "illegitimate" (to unwed parents) and in his drive for success, need for self-justification, and passive-aggressive behavior. His biographer Allan Nevins wrote that Frémont lived

7656-571: The Savannah . When Sloat learned that Frémont had acted on his own authority (thus raising doubt about a war declaration), he retired to his cabin. On July 23, Stockton mustered Frémont's party and the former Bear Flaggers into military service as the "Naval Battalion of Mounted Volunteer Riflemen" with Frémont appointed major in command of the California Battalion , which he had helped form with his survey crew and volunteers from

7830-506: The Spanish Trail at present Victorville, California and then northeast through present-day Las Vegas , through Utah and back to South Pass. Exploring the Great Basin , Frémont verified that all the land (centered on modern-day Nevada between Reno and Salt Lake City) was an endorheic , without any outlet rivers flowing towards the sea. The finding contributed greatly to a better understanding of North American geography, and disproved

8004-491: The Timpanogos Utes in 1776. No European name was given to it at the time, and it was not shown on the map by Bernardo Miera y Pacheco , the cartographer for the expedition. Escalante had been on the shores of Utah Lake , which he named Laguna Timpanogos. It was the larger of the two lakes that appeared on Miera's map. Other cartographers followed his lead and charted Lake Timpanogos as the largest (or larger) lake in

8178-680: The USS Portsmouth , commanded by John B. Montgomery , was anchored at Sausalito . Frémont sent Lt. Gillespie to Montgomery and requested supplies including 8,000 percussion caps, 300 pounds (140 kg) of rifle lead, one keg of powder, and food provisions, intending to head back to St. Louis. On May 31, Frémont made his camp on the Bear and Feather rivers 60 miles (97 km) north of Sutter's Fort , where American immigrants ready for revolt against Mexican authority joined his party. From there he made another attack on local Native Americans in

8352-599: The Wasatch Mountains , but land around the north and west shores is almost uninhabited. The Bonneville Salt Flats are to the west, and the Oquirrh and Stansbury Mountains rise to the south. The Great Salt Lake is fed by three major rivers and several minor streams. The three major rivers are each fed directly or indirectly from the Uinta Mountain range in northeastern Utah. The Bear River starts on

8526-533: The adjutant general in Washington to stand for court-martial, Frémont was found innocent of mutiny , but was convicted on January 31, 1848, of disobedience toward a superior officer and military misconduct. While approving the court's decision, President James K. Polk quickly commuted Frémont's sentence of dishonorable discharge and reinstated him into the Army, due to his war services. Polk felt that Frémont

8700-525: The president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), Brigham Young , who led a group of Mormon pioneers to the Salt Lake Valley southeast of the lake on July 24, 1847. The lake lies in parts of five counties: Box Elder , Davis , Tooele , Weber , and Salt Lake . Salt Lake City and its suburbs are located to the south-east and east of the lake, between the lake and

8874-419: The American public. Historians are divided in their opinions on this period of Frémont's career. Mary Lee Spence and Donald Jackson, editors of a large collection of letters by Fremont and others dating from this period, concluded that "...in the California episode, Frémont was as often right as wrong. And even a cursory investigation of the court-martial record produces one undeniable conclusion: neither side in

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9048-414: The American settlers indirectly and "guardedly" to revolt. On June 14, 34 armed rebels independently captured Sonoma, the largest settlement in northern California, and forced the surrender of Colonel Mariano Vallejo , taking him and three others prisoner. The following day, the rebelling Americans, who were called Osos (Spanish for "bears") by the residents of Sonoma, amidst a brandy-filled party, hoisted

9222-597: The Arkansas, he might have succeeded. On November 25 at what is now Florence, Colorado , he turned sharply south. By the time his party crossed the Sangre de Cristo Range via Mosca Pass , they had already experienced days of bitter cold, blinding snow and difficult travel. Some of the party, including the guide Wootton, had already turned back, concluding that further travel would be impossible. Benjamin Kern and "Old Bill" Williams were killed by Ute warriors while retracing

9396-467: The California Battalion refused to join the U.S. Army. Frémont gave orders for the California Battalion not to surrender arms, rode to Monterey to talk to Kearny, and told Kearny he would obey orders. Kearny sent Col. Richard B. Mason , who was to succeed Kearny as military governor of California, to Los Angeles, both to inspect troops and to give Frémont further orders. Frémont and Mason, however, were at odds with each other and Frémont challenged Mason to

9570-531: The Dead Sea's water; compared to the ocean, the Great Salt Lake's waters are slightly enriched in potassium and depleted in calcium . Dissolved ions do not necessarily increase or decrease in step with changes of total dissolved solids. For example, in October 1903, dissolved solids tallied 27.72% and by February 1910 they were down to 17.68%, with chlorine, sodium and sulfate levels substantially lower, but over

9744-734: The Great Basin between the Rockies and the Sierras and advance Benton's dream of acquiring the West for the United States. Frémont and his party turned south along the eastern flank of the Cascades to Pyramid Lake , which he named. Staying on the eastern side of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, they went on south as far as present-day Minden, Nevada , reaching the Carson River on January 18, 1844. From there Frémont turned west into

9918-409: The Great Salt Lake is not conserved, the state could face potential economic and public health crises, with consequences for air quality, local agriculture, and wildlife. According to “Utah’s Great Salt Lake Strike Team”, in order increase the lake's level within the next 30 years, see average inflows must increase by 472,00 acre-feet per year, which is about a 33% increase in the amount that has reached

10092-555: The Merced Mining Company was actively mining on Frémont's property. Since Alvarado had purchased Las Mariposas on a "floating grant", the property borders were not precisely defined by the Mexican government. Alvarado's ownership of the land was legally contested since Alvarado never actually settled on the property as required by Mexican law. All of these matters lingered and were argued in court for many years until

10266-565: The Navy Department had sent orders for Sloat and his successors to establish military rule over California. These orders, however, postdated Kearny's orders to establish military control over California. Kearny did not have the troop strength to enforce those orders, and was forced to rely on Stockton's Marines and Frémont's California Battalion until army reinforcements arrived. On February 13, specific orders were sent from Washington through Commanding General Winfield Scott giving Kearny

10440-607: The Pierce Administration and the spread of slavery into the West. Initially, Frémont was asked to be the Democratic candidate by former Virginia Governor John B. Floyd and the powerful Preston family. Frémont announced that he was for Free Soil Kansas and was against the enforcement of the 1850 Fugitive Slave Law . However, Republican leaders Nathaniel P. Banks , Henry Wilson , and John Bigelow were able to get Frémont to join their political party. Seeking

10614-489: The Salton Sea is home to species such as carp, striped mullet, humpback sucker, and rainbow trout. Stratification in salt lakes occurs as a result of the unique chemical and environmental processes that cause water to separate into layers based on density . In these lakes, high rates of evaporation often concentrate salts, leading to denser, saltier water sinking to the lake's bottom, while fresher water remains nearer

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10788-639: The Senate Committee on Military Affairs. Benton invited Frémont to his Washington home where he met Benton's 16-year-old daughter Jessie Benton . A romance blossomed between the two; however, Benton was initially against it because Frémont was not considered upper society. In 1841, Frémont (age 28) and Jessie eloped and were married by a Catholic priest. Initially Benton was furious at their marriage, but in time, because he loved his daughter, he accepted their marriage and became Frémont's patron. Benton, Democratic Party leader for more than 30 years in

10962-481: The Senate in 1846, served as a guide for thousands of American emigrants, depicting the entire length of the Oregon Trail . When Nicollet was too ill to continue any further explorations, Frémont was chosen to be his successor. His first important expedition was planned by Benton, Senator Lewis Linn , and other Westerners interested in acquiring the Oregon Territory. The scientific expedition started in

11136-560: The Senate, championed the expansionist movement, a political cause that became known as Manifest Destiny . The expansionists believed that the North American continent, from one end to the other, north and south, east and west, should belong to the citizens of the U.S. They believed it was the nation's destiny to control the continent. This movement became a crusade for politicians such as Benton and his new son-in-law. Benton pushed appropriations through Congress for national surveys of

11310-502: The Senate. Neither Heydenfeldt, nor Frémont's other second-time competitor King, were able to obtain a majority of votes, allowing Gwin to be California's lone senator. Frémont's term lasted 175 days from September 10, 1850, to March 3, 1851, and he only served 21 working days in Washington in the Senate. Pro-slavery John B. Weller , supported by the Chivs, was elected one year later to the empty Senate seat previously held by Frémont. In

11484-673: The Stansbury mountain range and Stansbury island). Stansbury also published a formal report of his survey work which became very popular. His report of the area included a discussion of Mormon religious practices based on Stansbury's interaction with the Mormon community in Great Salt Lake City . Beginning in November 1895, artist and author Alfred Lambourne spent a year living on the remote Gunnison Island , where he wrote

11658-665: The Supreme Court finally ruled in Frémont's favor in 1856. Although Frémont's legal victory allowed him to keep his wealth, it created lingering animosity among his neighbors. During the late 1850s, Frederick H. Billings , a partner in the Halleck, Peachy & Billings law firm that employed Park, partnered with Frémont in several successful business ventures. Billings later embarked on several trips to Europe in an unsuccessful effort to sell Frémont's Mariposa mine shares. At

11832-591: The U.S. Navy had occupied Monterey and Yerba Buena. Two days later, Frémont received a letter from Sloat, describing the capture of Monterey and ordering Frémont to bring at least 100 armed men to Monterey. Frémont would bring 160 men. On July 15, Commodore Robert F. Stockton arrived in Monterey to replace the 65-year-old Sloat in command of the Pacific Squadron. Sloat named Stockton commander-in-chief of all land forces in California. On July 19, Frémont's party entered Monterey, where he met with Sloat on board

12006-455: The U.S. Navy's Pacific Squadron , sailed into Monterey harbor with orders to seize San Francisco Bay and blockade the other California ports upon learning "without a doubt" that war had been declared. On July 5, Sloat received a message from Montgomery reporting the events in Sonoma and Frémont's involvement. Believing Frémont to be acting on orders from Washington, Sloat began to carry out his orders. Early on July 7, 225 sailors and marines on

12180-407: The U.S. in 1856 and founder of the California Republican Party when he was nominated. He lost the election to Democrat James Buchanan when the vote was split by Know Nothings . A native of Georgia , he attended the College of Charleston for two years until he was expelled after irregular attendance. He opposed slavery . In the 1840s, he led five expeditions into the western states. During

12354-410: The United States Navy frigate USS Savannah and the two sloops USS Cyane and USS Levant landed and captured Monterey with no shots being fired and raised the flag of the United States. Commodore Sloat had his proclamation read and posted in English and Spanish: "... henceforth California would be a portion of the United States." On July 10, Frémont received a message from Montgomery that

12528-674: The Virginia House of Delegates refused the divorce petition, it was impossible for the couple to marry. In Savannah, Anne took in boarders while Frémon taught French and dancing. Their domestic slave , Black Hannah, helped raise young John. On December 8, 1818, Frémont's father died in Norfolk, Virginia , leaving Anne a widow to take care of John and several young children alone on a limited inherited income. Anne and her family moved to Charleston, South Carolina . Frémont, knowing his origins and coming from relatively modest means, grew up

12702-930: The Walla Walla River at the Columbia River in Oregon. Frémont's endurance, energy, and resourcefulness over the long journey was remarkable. Traveling west along the Columbia, they came within sight of the Cascade Range peaks and saw Mount St. Helens and Mount Hood . Reaching the Dalles on November 5, Frémont left his party and traveled to the Hudson’s Bay Company Fort Vancouver for supplies. Rather than turning around and heading back to St. Louis, Frémont resolved to explore

12876-418: The air above it. During summer, the temperature differences can cause thunderstorms to form over the lake and drift eastward along the northern Wasatch Front . Some rainstorms may also be partially attributed to the lake effect in fall and spring. It is estimated that approximately six to eight lake effect snowstorms occur in a year, and that 10% of the average precipitation of Salt Lake City can be attributed to

13050-473: The amount is much less than the relict salt from Bonneville. The salinity of the lake's main basin, Gilbert Bay, is highly variable and depends on the lake's level; it ranges from 5 to 27% (50 to 270 parts per thousand ). For comparison, the average salinity of the world ocean is 3.5% (35 parts per thousand) and that of the Dead Sea is 33.7%. The ionic composition is similar to seawater, much more so than

13224-595: The area of the Great Salt Lake today. Bonneville reached 923 ft (281 m) at its deepest point and covered much of present-day Utah and small portions of Idaho and Nevada during the ice ages of the Pleistocene Epoch . Lake Bonneville existed until about 16,800 years ago, when a large portion of the lake was released through the Red Rock Pass in Idaho , resulting in cataclysmic floods . With

13398-419: The authority to be military governor of California. Kearny, however, did not directly inform Frémont of these orders from Scott. Kearny ordered that Frémont's California Battalion be enlisted into the U.S. Army and Frémont bring his battalion archives to Kearny's headquarters in Monterey. Frémont delayed obeying these orders, hoping Washington would send instructions for Frémont to be military governor. Also,

13572-428: The beach to intercept the three unarmed men who came ashore, including Don José Berreyesa and the 20-year-old de Haro twin brothers Ramon and Francisco, sons of Don Francisco de Haro . The three were murdered in cold blood. Exactly who committed the murders is a point of controversy, but later accounts point to Carson acting at the behest, if not the order, of Frémont. On July 1, Commodore John D. Sloat , commanding

13746-864: The birds which migrate to the lake. However, the fresh- and salt-water wetlands along the eastern and northern edges of the Great Salt Lake provide critical habitat for millions of migratory shorebirds and waterfowl in western North America. These marshes account for approximately 75% of the wetlands in Utah. Some of the birds that depend on these marshes include: Wilson's phalarope , red-necked phalarope , American avocet , black-necked stilt , marbled godwit , snowy plover , western sandpiper , long-billed dowitcher , tundra swan , American white pelican , white-faced ibis , California gull , eared grebe , peregrine falcon , bald eagle , plus large populations of various ducks and geese . There are twenty-seven private duck clubs, seven state waterfowl management areas, and

13920-499: The campaign calling her Our Jessie . Jessie and the Republican propaganda machine ran a strong campaign, but she was unable to get her powerful father, Senator Benton, to support Frémont. While praising Frémont, Benton announced his support for Buchanan. Frémont, along with the other presidential candidates, did not actively participate in the campaign, and he mostly stayed home at 56 West Street, in New York City. This practice

14094-421: The casualties vary. Expedition members Thomas E. Breckenridge and Thomas S. Martin claim the number of Native Americans killed as "120–150" and "over 175" respectively, but the eyewitness Tustin claimed that at least 600–700 Native Americans were killed on land, with another 200 or more dying in the water. There are no records of any expedition members being killed or wounded in the massacre. Kit Carson , one of

14268-486: The causeway for water to flow between the arms of the lake. Willard Bay , also known as Willard Bay Reservoir or Arthur V. Watkins Reservoir, is a freshwater reservoir completed in 1964, which separated, drained, and subsequently filled with fresh water from the Weber River a portion of the Great Salt Lake's northeastern arm. Record high water levels in the 1980s caused a large amount of property damage for owners on

14442-413: The causeway. A 2020 study found high concentrations of mercury in the lake's sediments, a consequence from smelting and mining activities in the surrounding mountains. The mercury and other metals can contaminate the overlying water, and in turn, move into brine shrimp and other organisms. Salt lake (geography) Salt lakes are classified according to salinity levels. The formation of these lakes

14616-584: The choice of Brigham Young and other members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints to settle in the Salt Lake Valley in July 1847. Young visited the lake three days after arriving in the Valley, and it was supplying salt to the settlers within a month. The lake was comprehensively surveyed for the first time in 1850 under the leadership of Howard Stansbury (Stansbury discovered and named

14790-527: The cold and snowy Sierra Nevada, becoming one of the first Americans to see Lake Tahoe . Carson successfully led Frémont's party through a new pass over the high Sierras, which Frémont named Carson Pass in his honor. Frémont and his party then descended the American River to Sutter's Fort (Spanish: Nueva Helvetia) at present-day Sacramento, California , in early March. Captain John Sutter ,

14964-644: The controversy acquitted itself with distinction." Allan Nevins states that Kearny: Theodore Grivas wrote that "It does not seem quite clear how Frémont, an army officer, could have imagined that a naval officer [Stockton] could have protected him from a charge of insubordination toward his superior officer [Kearny]". Grivas goes on to say, however, that "This conflict between Kearny, Stockton, and Frémont perhaps could have been averted had methods of communication been what they are today." Intent on restoring his honor and explorer reputation after his court martial, in 1848, Frémont and his father-in-law Sen. Benton developed

15138-505: The decadal-scale wet/dry cycles that characterize the region. By capturing these climate oscillations as well as utilizing the tree-ring reconstruction of lake level change, researchers were able to predict the lake level fluctuation onward for as long as 5–8 years. The Great Salt Lake differs in elevation between the south and north parts. The causeway for the Lucin Cutoff divides the lake into two parts. The water-surface elevation of

15312-1029: The diversity of life, primarily supporting specialized organisms such as halophilic bacteria and certain species of brine shrimp . These lakes can have high concentrations of sodium salts and minerals, such as lithium, making such lakes vulnerable to mining interests. Hypersaline lakes can be found in the McMurdo Dry Valleys in Antarctica, where salinity can reach ≈440‰. Salt lakes form through complex chemical, geological, and biological processes, influenced by environmental conditions like high evaporation rates and restricted water outflow. As water carrying dissolved minerals ( sodium , potassium , and magnesium ) enters these basins, it gradually evaporates, concentrating these minerals until they precipitate as salt deposits. Then, specific ions interact under controlled temperatures, which leads to solid-solution formation and salt crystal deposition within

15486-577: The east edge of the lake. The Jordan River does not receive its water directly from the Uintas; rather, it flows from freshwater Utah Lake , which itself is fed primarily by the Provo River . The Provo River does originate in the Uintas, a few miles from the Weber and Bear. The Jordan flows from the north part of Utah Lake into the south-east corner of the Great Salt Lake. Due to the lake's shallowness,

15660-631: The eastern side of the Great Salt Lake, and the water started to erode the base of Interstate 80 . In response, the State of Utah built the West Desert Pumping Project on the western side of the lake. It began operation on April 10, 1987. This project consists of a pumping station at Hogup Ridge , containing three pumps with a combined capacity of moving 1,500,000 US gallons per minute (95 m/s), an inlet canal, and an outlet canal. Also, there are 25 miles (40 km) of dikes and

15834-646: The expedition trail to look for gear and survivors. Although the passes through the Sangre de Cristo had proven too steep for a railroad, Frémont pressed on. From this point the party might still have succeeded had they gone up the Rio Grande to its source, or gone by a more northerly route, but the route they took brought them to the very top of Mesa Mountain. By December 12, on Boot Mountain, it took ninety minutes to progress three hundred yards. Mules began dying and by December 20, only 59 animals remained alive. It

16008-599: The fall and early winter. They are fed to prawns in Asia, sold as novelty " Sea-Monkeys ," sold either live, frozen, or dehydrated in pet stores as a fish food, and used in testing of toxins, drugs, and other chemicals. There are also two species of brine fly , as well as protozoa, rotifers, bacteria and algae. Salinity differences between the sections of the lake separated by the railroad causeway result in significantly different biota. A phytoplankton community dominated by green algae or cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) tint

16182-406: The fall of 1853, Frémont embarked on another expedition to identify a viable route for a transcontinental railroad along the 38th parallel. The party journeyed between Missouri and San Francisco, California, over a combination of known trails and unexplored terrain. A primary objective was to pass through the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada Mountains during winter to document the amount of snow and

16356-818: The feasibility of winter rail passage along the route. His photographer ( daguerreotypist ) was Solomon Nunes Carvalho . Frémont followed the Santa Fe Trail , passing Bent's Fort before heading west and entering the San Luis Valley of Colorado in December. The party then followed the North Branch of the Old Spanish Trail , crossing the Continental Divide at Cochetopa Pass and continuing west into central Utah. But following

16530-691: The following day in the Klamath Lake massacre , although the people living there might not have been involved in the first action. The village was at the junction of the Williamson River and Klamath Lake. On May 12, 1846, the Frémont group completely destroyed it, killing at least fourteen people. Frémont believed that the British were responsible for arming and encouraging the Native Americans to attack his party. Afterward, Carson

16704-586: The immediate goal to locate the source of the Arkansas River , on the east side of the Rocky Mountains. Frémont and his party struck west by way of Bent's Fort, The Great Salt Lake, and the "Hastings Cut-Off". When Frémont reached the Ogden River, which he renamed the Humboldt , he divided his party in two to double his geographic information. Upon reaching the Arkansas River, Frémont suddenly made

16878-499: The islands of the Great Salt Lake. Because of the Great Salt Lake's high salinity, it has few fish , but they do occur in Bear River Bay and Farmington Bay when spring runoff brings fresh water into the lake. A few aquatic animals live in the lake's main basin, including centimeter-long brine shrimp (Artemia franciscana). Their tiny, hard-walled eggs or cysts (diameter about 200 micrometers) are harvested in quantity during

17052-413: The islands, which they identified as Calochortus luteus . This species today occurs only in California; however, at that time the name C. luteus was applied to plants that later were named C. nuttallii A yellow-flowered Calochortus was first named as a variety of C. nuttallii but was later separated into a new species, C. aureus . This species occurs in Utah today, though apparently no longer on

17226-423: The journey. Already a foot of snow was on the ground at Bent's Fort, and the winter in the mountains promised to be especially snowy. Part of Frémont's purpose was to demonstrate that a 38th parallel railroad would be practical year-round. At Bent's Fort, he engaged "Uncle Dick" Wootton as guide, and at what is now Pueblo, Colorado , he hired the eccentric Old Bill Williams and moved on. Had Frémont continued up

17400-479: The lack of vertical mixing. Extremophiles , including specific bacteria and archaea , inhabit the hypersaline and oxygen-deficient zones at lower depths. Bacteria and archaea, for example, rely on alternative metabolic processes that do not depend on oxygen. These microorganisms play a critical role in nutrient cycling within salt lakes, as they break down organic material and release by-products that support other microbial communities. Due to limited biodiversity,

17574-452: The lake also contains a number of rocks, reefs, or shoals that become fully or partially submerged at high water levels. The Utah Geological Survey states "the lake contains 11 recognized islands, although this number varies depending on the level of the lake. Seven islands are in the southern portion of the lake and four in the northwestern portion." The size and whether they are counted as islands during any particular year depends mostly on

17748-400: The lake bed. This cycle of evaporation and deposition is the main process to the unique saline environment that characterizes a salt lake. Environmental factors further shape the composition and formation of salt lakes. Seasonal variations in temperature and evaporation drive mineral saturation and promote salt crystallization . In dry regions, water loss during warmer seasons concentrates

17922-479: The lake can fluctuate substantially due to its low average depth of 16 feet (4.9 m). In the 1980s, it reached a historic high of 3,300 square miles (8,500 km), and the West Desert Pumping Project was established to mitigate flooding by pumping water from the lake into the nearby desert. In 2021, after years of sustained drought and increased water diversion upstream of the lake, it fell to its lowest recorded area at 950 square miles (2,500 km), falling below

18096-497: The lake effect. Because of its high salt concentration, the lake water is unusually dense , and most people can float more easily than in other bodies of water, particularly in Gunnison Bay, the saltier north arm of the lake. Water levels have been recorded since 1875, averaging about 4,200 feet (1,300 m) above sea level . Since the Great Salt Lake is a shallow lake with gently sloping shores around all edges except on

18270-490: The lake had dropped by nearly six feet (1.8 meters) since reaching its peak levels during June 1986 and March 1987. The Utah Division of Water Resources credits the project with "over one-third of that decline". In total, the pumps removed 2,730,000 acre-feet (3.37 km) of water while they operated. Although the pumps are no longer in use, they have been kept in place in case the level of the Great Salt Lake ever rises that high again. Drought conditions, climate change , and

18444-410: The lake had risen due to spring runoff, and the north-western arm was within 1 foot (30 cm) of the southern arm. Categorically stating the number of islands is difficult, as the method used to determine what is an island is not necessarily the same in each source. Since the water level of the lake can vary greatly between years, what may be considered an island in a high water year may be considered

18618-428: The lake in recent years. Water conservation is viewed as being the most cost-effective and practical strategy to save salt lakes like the Great Salt Lake. Implementing strong water management policies, improving community awareness, and ensuring the return of water flow to these lakes are additional ways that may restore ecological balance. Other proposed methods of maintaining lake levels include cloud seeding and

18792-450: The lake level fluctuation onward for 5–8 years. The Utah Climate Center provides prediction of the Great Salt Lake's annual lake level. This forecast uses central tropical Pacific Ocean temperature, watershed precipitation, tree-ring data of 750+ years, and the lake level itself. A railroad line – the Lucin Cutoff  – runs across the lake, crossing the southern end of Promontory Peninsula . The mostly solid causeway supporting

18966-423: The lake – then in the middle of many years of recession – would virtually disappear except for a small remnant between the islands. A 2014 study used tree rings collected in the watershed of the Great Salt Lake to create a 576-year record of lake level reconstruction. The lake level change is strongly modulated by Pacific Ocean-coupled ocean/atmospheric oscillations at low frequency and therefore reflects

19140-475: The lake's chemistry, supporting only specialized microbial life adapted to extreme environments with high salinity and low oxygen levels. The restricted vertical mixing limits nutrient cycling , creating a favorable ecosystem for halophiles (salt-loving organisms) that rely on these saline conditions for stability and balance. The extreme conditions within stratified salt lakes have a profound effect on aquatic life , as oxygen levels are severely limited due to

19314-548: The lake's salts. This creates a dynamic environment where seasonal shifts affect the salt lake's mineral layers, contributing to its evolving structure and composition. Groundwater rich in dissolved ions often serve as primary mineral sources that, combined with processes like evaporation and deposition, contribute to salt lake development. Salt lakes host a diverse range of animals, despite high levels of salinity acting as significant environmental constraints. Increased salinity worsens oxygen levels and thermal conditions, raising

19488-429: The lake's western shore. The lake is deepest in the area between these island chains, measured by Howard Stansbury in 1850 at about 35 feet (11 meters) deep, and an average depth of 13 feet (four meters). When the water levels are low, Antelope Island becomes connected to the shore as a peninsula , as do Goose Islands, Browns Island, and some of the other islands. Stansbury Island and Strongs Knob remain peninsulas unless

19662-509: The lake. Fish in these bays are fed upon by diving terns and pelicans. A solitary Chilean flamingo , named Pink Floyd after the English rock band , wintered at the Great Salt Lake. He escaped from Salt Lake City's Tracy Aviary in 1987 and lived in the wild, eating brine shrimp and socializing with gulls and swans . A group of Utah residents suggested petitioning the state to release more flamingos in an effort to keep Floyd company and as

19836-461: The lake. It is typically heaviest in Tooele County to the east, and north into central Davis County , and can deposit excessive snowfall amounts, generally within a narrow band which is highly-dependent on the direction the wind is blowing. The lake-effect snowfalls are more likely to occur in late fall, early winter and spring, due to the higher temperature differences between the lake and

20010-478: The land had previously been owned by former California governor Juan Bautista Alvarado and his wife Martina Caston de Alvarado. Frémont had hoped that Las Mariposas was near San Francisco or Monterey, but was disappointed to learn that it was further inland, near Yosemite , on the Miwok Indians' hunting and gathering grounds. After his court martial in 1848, Frémont moved to Las Mariposas and became

20184-590: The lands between the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Frémont became a first rate topographer , trained in astronomy, and geology, describing fauna, flora, soil, and water resources. Gaining valuable western frontier experience Frémont met Henry Sibley , Joseph Renville , J.B. Faribault , Étienne Provost , and the Sioux nation. Frémont's exploration work with Nicollet brought him in contact with Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri, powerful chairman of

20358-477: The level of the lake. From largest to smallest, they are Antelope Island , Stansbury Island , Fremont Island , Carrington Island , Dolphin Island, Cub Island , and Badger Island, and various named rocks, reefs, or shoals such as Strongs Knob, Gunnison Island , Goose, Browns, Hat (Bird), Egg Island, Black Rock, and White Rock. Dolphin Island, Cub Island, and Strongs Knob are in the northwestern arm. The rest are in

20532-480: The longer Senate term while Frémont won the shorter Senate term. In Washington, Frémont, whose California ranch had been purchased from a Mexican land grantee, supported an unsuccessful law that would have rubber-stamped Mexican land grants, and another law that prevented foreign workers from owning gold claims (Fremont's ranch was in gold country), derisively called "Frémont's Gold Bill". Frémont voted against harsh penalties for those who assisted runaway slaves and he

20706-453: The main source of the mercury is from atmospheric deposition from worldwide industry, rather than local sources. As water levels rise and fall, mercury accumulation does as well. About 16% of the mercury is from rivers, and 84% is from the atmosphere as an inorganic form, which is converted into more toxic methylmercury by bacteria which thrive in the more saline water of the North arm affected by

20880-407: The mitigation of dust transmission hotspots. Note: Some of the following are also partly fresh and/or brackish water. John C. Fremont Major-General John Charles Frémont (January 21, 1813 – July 13, 1890) was a United States Army officer, explorer, and politician. He was a United States senator from California and was the first Republican nominee for president of

21054-455: The mounted attackers, later stated, "It was a perfect butchery." Fremont and his men eventually made their way to camp at Klamath Lake , killing Native Americans on sight as they went. On May 8, Frémont was overtaken by Lieutenant Archibald Gillespie from Washington, who gave him copies of dispatches he had previously given to Larkin. Gillespie told Frémont secret instructions from Benton and Buchanan justifying aggressive action and that

21228-506: The muddy slopes during the rainy night, his men regrouped in the foothills (behind what is today Rancho Del Ciervo) the next morning, and captured the Presidio of Santa Barbara and the town without bloodshed. A few days later, Frémont led his men southeast towards Los Angeles. Fremont accepted Andres Pico's surrender upon signing the Treaty of Cahuenga on January 13, 1847, which terminated

21402-690: The navy and was appointed second lieutenant in the U.S. Topographical Corps , surveying a route for the Charleston, Louisville, and Cincinnati railroad. Working in the Carolina mountains, Frémont desired to become an explorer. Between 1837 and 1838, Frémont's desire for exploration increased while in Georgia on reconnaissance to prepare for the removal of Cherokee Indians . When Poinsett became Secretary of War, he arranged for Frémont to assist French explorer and scientist Joseph Nicollet in exploring

21576-535: The new state of California in 1850. At the beginning of the American Civil War in 1861, he was given command of the Department of the West by President Abraham Lincoln . Frémont had successes during his brief tenure there, though he ran his department autocratically and made hasty decisions without consulting President Lincoln or Army headquarters. He issued an unauthorized emancipation edict and

21750-559: The north slope of the Uintas and flows north past Bear Lake , into which some of Bear River's waters have been diverted via a man-made canal into the lake, but later empty back into the river by means of the Bear Lake Outlet. The river then turns south in southern Idaho and eventually flows into the northeast arm of the Great Salt Lake. The Weber River also starts on the north slope of the Uinta Mountains and flows into

21924-407: The overuse of snowmelt have caused the Great Salt Lake to shrink considerably. As of July 2022, the Great Salt Lake occupies approximately 950 square miles (2,500 km). In 1987, it occupied about 3,300 square miles (8,500 km). As of March 2023, the lake's highest recorded surface elevation was 4,211.2 feet (1,283.6 m) For comparison, on April 15, 1987; the lowest recorded surface elevation

22098-734: The party continued across the Great Basin and entered the Owens Valley near present-day Big Pine , California, on the eastern flank of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Frémont journeyed south before crossing the Sierra Nevadas and entering the Kern River drainage, which he and his party then followed west into the San Joaquin Valley . Frémont arrived in San Francisco on April 16, 1854. Having completed

22272-514: The presence of freshwater species along with some salt-tolerant aquatic organisms. Lake Alchichica in Mexico is a hyposaline lake. Mesosaline lakes have a salinity level ranging from 3 to 35 g/L. An example of a mesosaline lake is Redberry Lake in Saskatchewan, Canada . Hypersaline lakes possess salinities greater than 35 g/L, often reaching levels that can exceed 200 g/L. The extreme salinity levels create harsh conditions that limit

22446-531: The previous low set in 1963. The lake's three major tributaries, the Jordan , Weber , and Bear rivers together deposit around 1.1 million tons of minerals in the lake per year. Since the lake has no outlet besides evaporation , these minerals accumulate and give the lake high salinity (far saltier than seawater ) and density. This density causes swimming in the lake to feel similar to floating . The lake has been called "America's Dead Sea " and provides

22620-467: The railway divides the lake into three portions: the north-east arm, north-west arm, and southern. The causeway obstructed the normal mixing of the waters of the lake, because there were only three 100-foot (30 m) breaches. Because no rivers, except a few minor streams, flow directly into the north-west arm, Gunnison Bay , it is substantially saltier than the rest of the lake. This saltier environment promotes different types of algae from those growing in

22794-469: The region. As people became aware of the Great Salt Lake, they interpreted the maps to think that "Timpanogos" referred to the Great Salt Lake. On some maps, the two names were used synonymously. In time, "Timpanogos" was dropped from the maps and its original association with Utah Lake was forgotten. In 1824, it was observed, apparently independently, by Jim Bridger and Etienne Provost . Shortly thereafter, other trappers saw it and walked around it. Most of

22968-417: The restrictive environment limits biodiversity , allowing only specially adapted life forms to survive, which creates unique, highly specialized ecosystems that are distinct from freshwater or less saline habitats. Salt lakes declined worldwide in recent years. The Aral Sea , once of the largest saline lakes with a surface area of 67,499 km in 1960, diminished to approximately 6,990 km in 2016. This trend

23142-412: The same time calcium, magnesium and potassium increased , with the increase of magnesium especially pronounced. The high salinity in parts of the lake makes them uninhabitable for all but a few species, including brine shrimp , brine flies , nematodes , and several forms of algae . The brine flies have an estimated population of over one hundred billion and serve as the main source of food for many of

23316-488: The second expedition, due to his proven skills, and he joined Frémont's party on the Arkansas River. Unable to find a new route through Colorado to the South Pass, Frémont took to the regular Oregon Trail, passing the main body of the great migration of 1843. His party stopped to explore the northern part of the Great Salt Lake , then traveling by way of Fort Hall and Fort Boise to Marcus Whitman 's mission on

23490-433: The settlers. Frémont went to Monterey, California , to talk with the American consul, Thomas O. Larkin , and Mexican commandant Jose Castro , under the pretext of gaining fuller supplies. In February 1846, Frémont reunited with 45 men of his expedition party near Mission San José , giving the United States a relatively strong military presence in California. Castro and Mexican officials were suspicious of Frémont and he

23664-439: The south part of the lake is usually 0.5 to 2 feet (15–61 cm) higher than that of the north part because most of the inflow to the lake occurs from the south. Most of the salts dissolved in the lake and deposited in the desert flats around it reflect the concentration of solutes by evaporation ; Lake Bonneville itself was fresh enough to support populations of fish. More salt is added yearly via rivers and streams, though

23838-399: The south side, small variations in the water level greatly affect the extent of the shoreline. The water level can rise dramatically in wet years and fall during dry years. The water level is also affected by the amount of water flow diverted for agricultural and urban uses. The Jordan and Weber rivers, in particular, are diverted for other uses. In the 1880s, Grove Karl Gilbert predicted that

24012-529: The southern end of the Newfoundland Mountains regulated the level of water in the basin and it sometimes returned salty water from the evaporation basin into the main body of the Great Salt Lake. At the end of their first year of operation, the pumps had removed about 500,000 acre-feet (620,000,000 m) of water from the Great Salt Lake. The project was shut down in June 1989, as the level of

24186-418: The southern part of the lake, leading to a marked color difference on the two sides of the causeway. On December 1, 2016, the opening of a new 180-foot-long (55 m) bridge allowed water to flow from the southern arm of the lake into the north-west arm. At the time of opening of the causeway, the north-west arm was nearly 3 feet (90 cm) lower than the southern arm. By April 2017, the levels of both arms of

24360-622: The southern portion of the Great Salt Lake. Black Rock, Antelope Island, White Rock, Egg Island, Fremont Island, and the Promontory mountain range are each extensions of the Oquirrh Mountain Range , which dips beneath the lake at its southeastern shore. Stansbury, Carrington, and Hat Islands are extensions of the Stansbury mountain range, and Strongs Knob is an extension of the Lakeside Mountains which run along

24534-459: The start of the American Civil War , Billings acted as Frémont's agent when Frémont took the initiative to purchase arms in England for use by Union troops. On November 13, 1849, General Bennet C. Riley , without Washington approval, called for a state election to ratify the new California State constitution. On December 20 , the California legislature voted to seat two senators to represent

24708-482: The state in the Senate. The front-runner was Frémont, a Free Soil Democrat , known for being a western hero, and regarded by many as an innocent victim of an unjustified court-martial. The other candidates were T. Butler King , a Whig, and William Gwin , a Democrat. Frémont won the first Senate seat, easily having 29 out of 41 votes and Gwin, having Southern backing, was elected to the second Senate seat, having won 24 out of 41 votes. By random draw of straws, Gwin won

24882-676: The summer of 1842 and was to explore the Wind River of the Rocky Mountains , examine the Oregon Trail through the South Pass , and report on the rivers and the fertility of the lands, find optimal sites for forts, and describe the mountains beyond in Wyoming. By chance meeting, Frémont was able to gain the valuable assistance of mountain man and guide Kit Carson . Frémont and his party of 25 men, including Carson, embarked from

25056-738: The summer of 1843. The more ambitious goal this time was to map and describe the second half of the Oregon Trail, find an alternate route to the South Pass, and push westward toward the Pacific Ocean on the Columbia River in Oregon Country. Frémont and his almost 40 well-equipped men left the Missouri River in May after he controversially obtained a 12-pound howitzer cannon in St. Louis. Frémont invited Carson on

25230-462: The surface. These seasonal changes influence the lake's structure, making stratification more pronounced during warmer months due to increasing evaporation, which drives separation between saline and fresher layers in the lake, leading a phenomenon known as meromixis (meromictic state), primarily prevents oxygen from penetrating the deeper layers and create the hypoxic (low oxygen) or anoxic (no oxygen) zones. This separation eventually influenced

25404-562: The symbol of the Republican Party. The Democratic Party nominated James Buchanan . Frémont's wife Jessie, Bigelow, and Issac Sherman ran Frémont's campaign. As the daughter of a senator, Jessie had been raised in Washington, and she understood politics more than Frémont. Many treated Jessie as an equal political professional, while Frémont was treated as an amateur. She received popular attention much more than potential First Ladies, and Republicans celebrated her participation in

25578-595: The trail was made difficult by snow cover. On occasion, they were able to detect evidence of Captain John Gunnison 's expedition, which had followed the North Branch just months before. Weeks of snow and bitter cold took its toll and slowed progress. Nonessential equipment was abandoned and one man died before the struggling party reached the Mormon settlement of Parowan in southwestern Utah on February 8, 1854. After spending two weeks in Parowan to regain strength,

25752-437: The trappers, however, were illiterate and did not record their discoveries. As oral reports of their findings made their way to those who did make records, some errors were made. In 1843, John C. Fremont led the first scientific expedition to the lake, but with winter coming on, he did not take the time to survey the entire lake. Fremont's glowing reports of the area were published shortly after his expedition, and they influenced

25926-490: The two wrote a second report, scientific in detail, showing the Oregon Trail was not difficult to travel and that the Northwest had fertile land. The Senate and House each ordered the printing of 10,000 copies to be distributed to the press and public, used to promote the cause of national expansion. With the backdrop of an impending war with Mexico, after James K. Polk had been elected president, Benton quickly organized

26100-493: The war in upper California. It was at this time Kearny ordered Frémont to join his military dragoons, but Frémont refused, believing he was under authority of Stockton. On January 16, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Frémont military governor of California following the Treaty of Cahuenga , and then left Los Angeles. Frémont functioned for a few weeks without controversy, but he had little money to administer his duties as governor. Previously, unknown to Stockton and Frémont,

26274-471: The warming climate, the remaining lake began to dry , leaving the Great Salt Lake, Utah Lake , Sevier Lake , and Rush Lake behind. There are several maps dating back to 1575 that show the Great Salt Lake at the correct latitude and longitude, within an accuracy of a few degrees. One example is a map by Nicolas Sanson dated 1650. The Great Salt Lake entered written history through the records of Silvestre Vélez de Escalante , who learned of its existence from

26448-407: The water level can fall and rise dramatically during dry years or high-precipitation years, thereby reflecting prolonged drought or wet periods. The change in the level of lake level is strongly modulated by the Pacific Ocean through atmospheric circulations that fluctuate at low frequency. By capturing these climate oscillations while using tree-ring reconstruction of lake level, scientists can predict

26622-399: The water level rises well-above the average. Due to the warm waters of the Great Salt Lake, lake-effect snowfalls are frequent phenomena in the surrounding area. Cold north, north-west, or west winds generally blow across the lake following the passage of a cold front, and the temperature difference between the warm lake and the cool air can form clouds that lead to precipitation downwind of

26796-517: The water south of the causeway a greenish color. North of the causeway, the lake is dominated by Dunaliella salina , a species of algae which releases beta-carotene , and the bacteria-like haloarchaea , which together give the water an unusual reddish or purplish color. The dense, high-salinity water of the North Arm flows back through the causeway into the Southern portion of the lake, creating

26970-433: The water's density and viscosity , which demands greater energy for animal movement. Despite these challenges, salt lakes support biota adapted to such conditions with specialized physiological and biochemical mechanisms. Common salt lake invertebrates include various parasites, with around 85 parasite species found in saline waters, including crustaceans and monogeneans . Among them, the filter-feeding brine shrimp plays

27144-654: The work of earlier pathfinders to expand knowledge of the American West. Frémont's talent lay in his scientific documentation, publications, and maps made based on his expeditions, making the American West accessible for many Americans. Beginning in 1842, Frémont led five western expeditions, however, between the third and fourth expeditions, Frémont's career took a fateful turn because of the Mexican–American War . Frémont's initial explorations, his timely scientific reports, co-authored by his wife Jessie, and their romantic writing style, encouraged Americans to travel West. A series of seven maps produced from his findings, published by

27318-404: Was 4,188.5 feet (1,276.7 m) on December 17, 2022. In 2023, scientists at Brigham Young University estimated that without policy changes, the lake would dry up in 2028, with local species killed off by overly salty water somewhat before that. Continued shrinkage could also turn the lake into a bowl of toxic dust, poisoning the air around Salt Lake City Environmentalists proposed establishing

27492-475: Was a success, returning to Washington in October. Frémont and his wife Jessie wrote a Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky Mountains (1843), which was printed in newspapers across the country; the public embraced his vision of the west not as a place of danger but wide open and inviting lands to be settled. Frémont's successful first expedition led quickly to a second; it began in

27666-413: Was at this time Frémont began signing letters as "Military Commander of U.S. Forces in California". On June 24, Frémont and his men, upon hearing that Californio (people of Spanish or Mexican descent) Juan N. Padilla had captured, tortured, killed, and mutilated the bodies of two Osos and held others prisoner, rode to Sonoma, arriving on June 25. On June 26, Frémont, his own men, Lieutenant Henry Ford and

27840-588: Was awarded the Patron's Medal by the Royal Geographical Society for his various exploratory efforts. On February 10, 1847, Frémont purchased a 70-square-mile parcel of land in the Sierra foothills through land speculator Thomas Larkin for $ 3,000 ($ 83,177 in 2023). Known as Las Mariposas (Spanish for "The Butterflies"), an allusion to the great number of Monarch butterflies found there,

28014-469: Was expelled for irregular attendance in 1831. Frémont, however, had been grounded in mathematics and natural sciences. Frémont attracted the attention of eminent South Carolina politician Joel R. Poinsett , an Andrew Jackson supporter, who secured Frémont an appointment as a teacher of mathematics aboard the sloop USS Natchez , sailing the South American seas in 1833. Frémont resigned from

28188-511: Was found to contain 1 nanogram per liter. The extremely high methylmercury concentrations have been only in the lake's anoxic deep brine layer ( monimolimnion ) below a depth of 20 feet (6.1 m), but concentrations are also moderately high up in the water column where there is oxygen to support brine shrimp and brine flies. The toxic metal shows up throughout the lake's food chain, from brine shrimp to eared grebes and cinnamon teal. The finding of high mercury levels prompted further studies, and

28362-415: Was guilty of disobeying orders and misconduct, but he did not believe Frémont was guilty of mutiny. Additionally, Polk wished to placate Thomas Hart Benton , a powerful senator and Frémont's father-in-law, who felt that Frémont was innocent. Frémont, only gaining a partial pardon from Polk, resigned his commission in protest and settled in California. Despite the court-martial, Frémont remained popular among

28536-510: Was having an affair with Frémon. Anne and Frémon fled to Williamsburg on July 10, 1811, later settling in Norfolk, Virginia , taking with them household slaves Anne had inherited. The couple later settled in Savannah, Georgia , where she gave birth to their son Frémont out of wedlock. Pryor published a divorce petition in the Virginia Patriot and charged that his wife had "for some time past indulged in criminal intercourse". When

28710-543: Was in favor of abolishing the slave trade in the District of Columbia. Democratic pro-slavery opponents of Frémont, called the Chivs, strongly opposed Frémont's re-election, and endorsed Solomon Heydenfeldt . Rushing back to California hoping to thwart the Chivs, Frémont started his own election newspaper, the San Jose Daily Argus , however, to no avail, he was unable to get enough votes for re-election to

28884-456: Was later reinforced when Stockton sent troops to drive off Pio Pico and his forces. It was at this time a dispute began between Stockton and Kearny over who had control of the military, but the two managed to work together to stop the Los Angeles uprising . Frémont led his unit over the Santa Ynez Mountains at San Marcos Pass in a rainstorm on the night of December 24, 1846. Despite losing many of his horses, mules and cannons, which slid down

29058-488: Was nearly killed by a Klamath warrior. As Carson's gun misfired, the warrior drew to shoot a poison arrow; however, Frémont, seeing that Carson was in danger, trampled the warrior with his horse. Carson felt that he owed Frémont his life. A few weeks later, Frémont and his armed militia returned to California. Having reentered Mexican California headed south, Frémont and his army expedition stopped off at Peter Lassen 's Ranch on May 24, 1846. Frémont learned from Lassen that

29232-453: Was not until December 22 that Frémont acknowledged that the party needed to regroup and be resupplied. They began to make their way to Taos in the New Mexico Territory . By the time the last surviving member of the expedition made it to Taos on February 12, 1849, 10 of the party had died and been eaten by the survivors. Except for the efforts of member Alexis Godey, another 15 would have been lost. After recuperating in Taos, Frémont and only

29406-401: Was ordered to leave the country. Frémont and his men withdrew and camped near the summit of what is now named Fremont Peak . Frémont raised the United States Flag in defiance of Mexican authority. After a four-day standoff and Castro having a superior number of Mexican troops, Frémont and his men went north to Oregon, bringing about the Sacramento River massacre along the way. Estimates of

29580-460: Was relieved of his command for insubordination by Lincoln. After a brief service tenure in the Mountain Department in 1862, Frémont resided in New York, retiring from the army in 1864. He was nominated for president in 1864 by the Radical Democracy Party , a breakaway faction of abolitionist Republicans, but he withdrew before the election. After the Civil War, he lost much of his wealth in the unsuccessful Pacific Railroad in 1866, and he lost more in

29754-416: Was secretly told that if war started with Mexico he was to turn his scientific expedition into a military force. President Polk, who had met with Frémont at a cabinet meeting, was set on taking California. Frémont desired to conquer California for its beauty and wealth, and would later explain his very controversial conduct there. On June 1, 1845, Frémont and his armed expedition party left St. Louis having

29928-429: Was the major component of the Lucin Cutoff . The route is now owned and operated by Union Pacific . About 15 trains cross the 20 mi (32 km) causeway each day. Prior to December 2, 2016, the causeway constrained the flow of water between northern and southern arms, which has a significant impact on various industries surrounding the lake. The construction of a 180-foot-long (55 m) bridge created an opening of

30102-430: Was the rightful military governor of California . His sentence was commuted, and he was reinstated by President James K. Polk , but Frémont resigned from the Army. Afterwards, he settled in California at Monterey while buying cheap land in the Sierra foothills. Gold was found on his Mariposa ranch, and Frémont became a wealthy man during the California Gold Rush . He became one of the first two U.S. senators elected from

30276-433: Was typical in presidential campaigns of the 19th century. To win the presidency, the Republicans concentrated on four swing states, Pennsylvania , New Jersey, Indiana , and Illinois . Republican luminaries were sent out decrying the Democratic Party's attachment to slavery and its support of the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. The experienced Democrats, knowing the Republican strategy, also targeted these states, running

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