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58-465: About 25, see text Cecropia is a Neotropical genus consisting of 61 recognized species with a highly distinctive lineage of dioecious trees. The genus consists of pioneer trees in the more or less humid parts of the Neotropics , with the majority of the species being myrmecophytic . Berg and Rosselli state that the genus is characterized by some unusual traits: spathes fully enclosing

116-454: A dioecious species. The fruits are achenes enveloped by a fleshy perianths , oblongoid, elliptic, subobovoid or subovoid. The pericarp is tuberculate in most species, although it is smooth in some species. Seeds can be viable for more than five years and germinate when triggered by full sunlight and changing temperatures. Full-grown Cecropia trees can produce up to a million seeds, and this regular presence of fruits allows this genus to play

174-713: A diverse array of indigenous peoples , who to varying degrees persist in their autonomous and traditional cultures and subsistence within this environment. The number of these peoples who are as yet relatively untouched by external influences continues to decline significantly, however, along with the near-exponential expansion of urbanization , roads, pastoralism and forest industries which encroach on their customary lands and environment. Nevertheless, amidst these declining circumstances this vast "reservoir" of human diversity continues to survive, albeit much depleted. In South America alone, some 350–400 indigenous languages and dialects are still living (down from an estimated 1,500 at

232-586: A height of 0.6 to 1 m and the branches depart at acute angles. In most species of Cecropia , the branches depart at obtuse angles and the crown has a distinct umbrella shape. High variation is seen in the morphology of Cecropia species, but most form small to medium-sized trees, 5–15 m tall. Although some species ( C. distachya , C. herthae , C. insignis , and C. sciadophylla ) grow much taller, as large as 40 m, and some ( C. ulei ) rarely surpass 5 m. The high degree of variation can be attributed to regional habitat differences and longevity. The family Cecropiaceae

290-414: A major role in the ecosystem. It is often the keystone food supply for frugivorous animals, such as birds, fruit bats, monkeys, opossums, and even fish. Traits of the staminate flowers and inflorescences are adapted to wind pollination- either by pendulous spikes, which can be moved by the wind to shed the pollen or by the special adaptation of detachment of anthers, and their secondary attachment allowing

348-649: A narrow altitudinal and ecological niche, with certain species specializing in specific habitats, such as seasonally inundated habitats, rocky slopes, swamps, natural or man-made clearings, etc. Species in the genus Cecropia are some of the most abundant pioneer tree species in natural tree-fall gaps inside primary forests. Its geographic distribution extends along the Pacific and Atlantic Mexican coasts and in Central and South American forests, and are found over an elevation range of 0 to 2,600 m. Cecropia species are among

406-655: A number of well-known and useful plants, including nettles in the genus Urtica , ramie ( Boehmeria nivea ), māmaki ( Pipturus albidus ), and ajlai ( Debregeasia saeneb ). The family includes about 2,625 species, grouped into 53 genera according to the database of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and Christenhusz and Byng (2016). The largest genera are Pilea (500 to 715 species), Elatostema (300 species), Urtica (80 species), and Cecropia (75 species). Cecropia contains many myrmecophytes . Urticaceae species can be found worldwide, apart from

464-483: Is attached to the petiole , the venation is radiate, and the lamina is radially incised between the radiating main veins. Variation is high in the number of lobes or leaf segments, ranging from five to more than 20. Pourouma bicolor is very similar in appearance to the Cecropia , with its umbrella-shaped leaves, stilt roots, large leaves with wide lobes, and whitish color on the underside. The distinctions between

522-453: Is characterized by having adventitious roots, and in Cecropia , they become stilt-roots, which are a common feature of large trees, especially living near rivers or marshes. Cecropia spp. are usually full of vines, but not normally overgrown by them. Most species have internodes that are hollow and contain whitish pith. These internodes provide a nesting area for the Azteca ants that inhabit

580-628: Is endemic to the Neotropic realm, occupying a larger geographic area than any other piranha species. Some fish groups originally unique to the Neotropics include: Examples of other animal groups that are entirely or mainly restricted to the Neotropical region include: According to Simberloff. as of 1984 there were a total of 92,128 species of flowering plants (Angiosperms) in the Neotropics. Plant families endemic and partly subendemic to

638-725: Is mostly covered by tropical moist broadleaf forest , including the vast Amazon rainforest , which stretches from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, and the lowland forests of the Guianas . The bioregion also includes tropical savanna and tropical dry forest ecoregions. The Central Andes lie between the Gulfs of Guayaquil and Penas and thus encompass southern Ecuador, Chile, Peru, western Bolivia, and northwest and western Argentina. Eastern South America includes

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696-508: Is notable for using Cecropia leaves as nesting material, which no other New World warbler (family Parulidae) seems to do. Cecropia is a major pioneer tree genus in regions of the Neotropics with wet lowland and montane forest. These trees are characteristic features of many American tropical rainforest ecosystems and may be among the dominant tree species in some places. Being aggressive, rapid-growth trees, whose succulent fruits are readily sought by various animals, they tend to be among

754-425: Is often initiated in seedlings, even in the axils of the first formed (opposite) leaves; prophylls are formed, and often the development of the first leaf begins but is arrested (if the seedling is not decapitated). In the axils of the leaves formed during later development, the axillary branch primordia do not produce more than one or two prophylls and a bud.” The branches of C. garciae and C. hispidissima occur at

812-720: Is regarded as the center of species richness and speciation because of the additional 25% of lowland taxa that reach the eastern or western foothills of the Andes. Therefore, only about 25% of the species occur outside of the Andean region. A map of the distribution of Cecropia can be found in the article written by Berg and Rosselli, 2005. Most species of Cecropia are lowland humid/rainforest species occurring from sea level to 1,300 m in altitude, while submontane species occupy an altitudinal range from 1,300-2,000 m, and montane species are found in cloud forest from 2,000-2,600 m. Many species have

870-432: Is used to heal wounds or eczema. Red Cecropia ( C. glaziovii ) shows antidepressant -like activity in rats. Native peoples use Cecropia for food, firewood , and in herbalism ; some species also have cultural significance. In Trinidad and Tobago , C. peltata root is chewed and given to dogs that have been bitten by venomous snakes as an emergency remedy (although there is no strong scientific evidence that this

928-400: Is useful). Cecropia leaves can be used as a substitute for sandpaper . In western South America , Cecropia leaf ash is used in the traditional preparation of ypadu , a mild coca -based stimulant. Cecropia bark can be used in rope making and in tannery . Cecropia wood is used in the manufacture of boxes , toys , aeromodeling models, and rafts . So far, no pharmaceuticals in

986-838: The Caatinga xeric shrublands of northeastern Brazil, the broad Cerrado grasslands and savannas of the Brazilian Plateau , and the Pantanal and Chaco grasslands. The diverse Atlantic forests of eastern Brazil are separated from the forests of Amazonia by the Caatinga and Cerrado, and are home to a distinct flora and fauna. North of the Gulf of Guayaquil in Ecuador and Colombia, a series of accreted oceanic terranes (discrete allochthonous fragments) have developed that constitute

1044-680: The Caribbean Islands , and southern North America. In Mexico, the Yucatán Peninsula and southern lowlands, and most of the east and west coastlines, including the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula are Neotropical. In the United States southern Florida and coastal Central Florida are considered Neotropical. The realm also includes temperate southern South America. In contrast,

1102-481: The Cecropia such as the stipules, the spathes, and the main veins of the lamina have red-coloring substances. The concentration of the substances varies, even within species, and some parts can be green, bluish, pale pink, dark red, dark purple, and even blackish. The color may fade with age, and can be deposited equally or in patterns such as longitudinal stripes. The leaves of adult Cecropia species are large and peltate , almost circular in circumference. The lamina

1160-656: The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event altered local flora and fauna. Much later, about two to three million years ago, South America was joined with North America by the formation of the Isthmus of Panama , which allowed a biotic exchange between the two continents, the Great American Interchange . South American species like the ancestors of the Virginia opossum ( Didelphis virginiana ) and

1218-470: The Great American Interchange , an important biogeographical event. The Neotropic includes more tropical rainforest ( tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ) than any other realm, extending from southern Mexico through Central America and northern South America to southern Brazil, including the vast Amazon rainforest . These rainforest ecoregions are one of the most important reserves of biodiversity on Earth. These rainforests are also home to

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1276-588: The Late Cretaceous of Central Europe . Most were assigned to the extant genera Boehmeria (three species), Debregeasia (one species) and Pouzolzia (three species), while three species were assigned to the extinct genus Urticoidea . A Colombian fossil flora of the Maastrichtian stage has yielded leaves that resemble leaves of the tribe Ceropieae. In the Cenozoic fossil leaves from

1334-660: The Ypresian Allenby Formation preserve distinct trichomes , and have been attributed to the Tribe Urticeae in the fossil record. The leaves had originally been identified as Rubus by earlier workers on the Eocene Okanagan Highlands , but Devore et al (2020) interpreted the preserved hairs along the stem and major veins as stinging trichomes, rather than simple hairs or thorns. Modern molecular phylogenetics suggest

1392-547: The armadillo moved into North America, and North Americans like the ancestors of South America's camelids , including the llama ( Lama glama ), moved south. The long-term effect of the exchange was the extinction of many South American species, mostly by outcompetition by northern species. The Neotropical realm has 31 endemic bird families, which is over twice the number of any other realm. They include tanagers , rheas , tinamous , curassows , antbirds , ovenbirds , toucans , and seriemas . Bird families originally unique to

1450-486: The green aracari ( Pteroglossus viridis ), the keel-billed toucan ( Ramphastos sulfuratus ), the peach-fronted conure ( Eupsittula aurea ), the bare-throated bellbird ( Procnias nudicollis ) and particularly nine-primaried oscines . The seeds are not normally digested , so these animals are important in distributing the trees. Some birds – e.g. the common potoo ( Nyctibius griseus ) – nest in Cecropia trees. The elfin-woods warbler ( Setophaga angelae )

1508-428: The stamens are mature and their filaments straighten explosively, a peculiar and conspicuously specialised mechanism. While the stings delivered by Urticaceae species are often unpleasant, they seldom pose any direct threat to health, and deaths directly attributed to stinging are exceedingly rare; species known to cause human fatalities include Dendrocnide cordata and Urtica ferox . The APG II system puts

1566-689: The temperate rain forests of the Valdivian temperate rain forests and Magellanic subpolar forests ecoregions, and the Juan Fernández Islands and Desventuradas Islands , are a refuge for the ancient Antarctic flora , which includes trees like the southern beech ( Nothofagus ), podocarps , the alerce ( Fitzroya cupressoides ), and Araucaria pines like the monkey-puzzle tree ( Araucaria araucana ). These rainforests are endangered by extensive logging and their replacement by fast-growing non-native pines and eucalyptus . South America

1624-927: The "cecropiacean" group in the Urticaceae. The genus is native to the American tropics, where it is one of the most recognizable components of the rainforest. The genus is named after Cecrops I , the mythical first king of Athens. Common local names in Venezuela include yarumo or yagrumo , or more specifically yagrumo hembra ("female yagrumo ") to distinguish them from the similar-looking but unrelated Didymopanax (which are called yagrumo macho , "male yagrumo "). In English, these trees are occasionally called pumpwoods (though this may also refer to C. schreberiana specifically) or simply Cecropias . Spanish-speaking countries in Central America, Mexico,

1682-604: The Baudo, or Coastal, Mountains and the Cordillera Occidental. The Orinoco is a region of humid forested broadleaf forest and wetland primarily comprising the drainage basin for the Orinoco River and other adjacent lowland forested areas. This region includes most of Venezuela and parts of Colombia, as well as Trinidad and Tobago . The temperate forest ecoregions of southwestern South America, including

1740-474: The Caribbean, Colombia, Ecuador commonly use the vernacular name, guarumo . Cecropia was first recognized and accounted for by Marcgrave (1648) and Piso (1658), the latter including an illustration with characteristic features. Loefling (1758) coined the generic name Cecropia . In 1759, Linnaeus described Cecropia peltata which he applied to many species. Willdenow (1806) created C. palmate , which

1798-405: The Neotropic include Bromeliaceae , Cannaceae and Heliconiaceae . Plant species with economic importance originally unique to the Neotropic include: Cecropiaceae Cecropiaceae C.C.Berg The Urticaceae / ɜːr t ɪ ˈ k eɪ s iː / are a family , the nettle family , of flowering plants . The family name comes from the genus Urtica . The Urticaceae include

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1856-652: The Neotropical Floristic Kingdom excludes southernmost South America, which instead is placed in the Antarctic kingdom . The Neotropic is delimited by similarities in fauna or flora . Its fauna and flora are distinct from the Nearctic realm (which includes most of North America) because of the long separation of the two continents. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama joined the two continents two to three million years ago, precipitating

1914-452: The Neotropics include hummingbirds (family Trochilidae) and wrens (family Troglodytidae). Mammal groups originally unique to the Neotropics include: The Neotropical realm has 63 endemic fish families and subfamilies, which is more than any other realm. Neotropical fishes include more than 5,700 species, and represent at least 66 distinct lineages in continental freshwaters (Albert and Reis, 2011). The well-known red-bellied piranha

1972-584: The North or South American markets are based on Cecropia species. However, scientists in Brazil have been studying the preparation of pharmaceutical products containing mainly C. glaziovii extracts. The preparation of pellets by extrusion-spheronization and polymeric nanoparticles has been reported. Neotropical In biogeography , the Neotropic or Neotropical realm is one of the eight terrestrial realms . This realm includes South America, Central America ,

2030-456: The Urticaceae in the order Rosales, while older systems consider them part of the Urticales , along with Ulmaceae , Moraceae , and Cannabaceae . APG still considers "old" Urticales a monophyletic group, but does not recognise it as an order on its own. The fossil record of Urticaceae is scattered and mostly based on dispersed fruits. Twelve species based on fossil achenes are known from

2088-812: The ants also prevent the Cecropia from encroaching vines and other plants. This may vary between or within species and over geographical locations. The main ants found living in Cecropia are different species of Azteca ants, although all ants belong to the same family, the Formicidae. The genus Azteca is endemic to the New World and its greatest abundance is in the lowland tropics. In the article written by Davidson, 2005 on page 221, Table 1 contains known obligate Cecropia-ants listed by species and geographic distribution. Ants and Cecropia have coadapted to each other, meaning that each species has evolved one or more traits in response to selective pressures exerted by

2146-802: The basal ovule and gynoecium, which appears to be formed from a single carpel, Thorne (1976) moved it to the Malvanae- Urticales, family Urticaceae. Berg (1978), however, placed it in its own family Cecropiaceae. When phylogenetic data became available, Cecropia was then moved back into the Urticaceae. The genus is easily identified by its large, circular, palmately lobed leaves, about 30–40 cm in diameter and deeply divided into 7–11 lobes. The trees consist of very few branches, usually with candelabrum-like branching system. In Costa Rica, three-toed sloths are often spotted easily in Cecropia trees because of their open, leafless branches compared to other trees. Berg and Roselli state, “Branch development

2204-503: The clearing of forest or creation of gaps. Cecropia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including the arctiid moth Hypercompe icasia ; the Cecropia moth ( Hyalophora cecropia ) is a North American species, however, thus allopatric with the plant genus. The leaves and buds are also eaten by sloths as their main source of food, but many herbivores avoid these plants; most Cecropia spp. are myrmecophytes , housing dolichoderine ants of

2262-590: The first pioneer species to occupy former forest areas cleared for pasture or altered by human activity. C. hololeuca , known in Brazil as "silver cecropia", has broad, silver-hued leaves that make it desirable as an ornamental plant for landscaping projects, as is the case with the similar species C. pachystachya . Greenhouse experiments have been performed with some species of Cecropia indicating them as “gap” and “pioneer” species under different light regimens and nutrient treatments. Some species ( C. maxima , C. tacuna , C. teleabla , and C. telenitida ) do not show

2320-567: The flower-bearing parts of the inflorescences until anthesis , patches of dense indumentums (trichilia) producing Mullerian (food) at the base of the petiole , and anthers becoming detached at anthesis. Cecropia is most studied for its ecological role and association with ants. Its classification is controversial; in the past, it has been placed in the Cecropiaceae , Moraceae (the mulberry family), or Urticaceae (the nettle family). The modern Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system places

2378-506: The genus Azteca , which vigorously defend their host plants against getting eaten. This symbiosis has been studied extensively by biologists such as Daniel Janzen . Cecropia fruit, known as snake fingers , are a popular food of diverse animals, including bats like the common fruit bat ( Artibeus jamaicensis ) and short-tailed fruit bat , the Central American squirrel monkey ( Saimiri oerstedii ), and birds such as

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2436-554: The most abundant pioneers of other neotropical forests. It is native to the Neotropics and occurs as an introduced exotic plant elsewhere. In most low-elevation, wet regions of the Neotropics, Cecropia trees are ubiquitous and important invaders of man-made clearings. The species C. pachystachya and C. peltata are invasive species in Old World localities including Singapore, Cameroon, Java, Malaysia, Ivory Coast, French Polynesia, and Hawaii. C. peltata has been nominated as one of

2494-476: The most extensive number by Snethlage (1923, 1924). Additional species were recognized by Burret (1924), Mildbread (1925, 1933), Standly (1929, 1940), Macbride (1937), Diels (1941), Standley & Steyermark (1944), and Stadley & Williems (1952). Hans Melchior (1964) placed Cecropia in the Urticales and Moraceae (Concephaleideae) because of its woody bark. Later based on the floral characters, most notably

2552-415: The other. An example is the recognition and use of both prostomata and Mullerian bodies by queens and worker ants. The wood from Cecropia trees is used by local people mainly to make musical instruments and tool handles. Flutes and guitars are commonly made of Cecropia wood. In addition, the wood is used for production of matches and cheap boxes. An attempt was made to use the wood to produce paper, but

2610-417: The polar regions. Urticaceae species can be shrubs (e.g. Pilea ), lianas, herbs (e.g. Urtica , Parietaria ), or, rarely, trees ( Dendrocnide , Cecropia ). Their leaves are usually entire and bear stipules . Urticating (stinging) hairs are often present. They have usually unisexual flowers and can be both monoecious or dioecious . They are wind-pollinated . Most disperse their pollen when

2668-580: The realm are, according to Takhtajan (1978), Hymenophyllopsidaceae , Marcgraviaceae , Caryocaraceae , Pellicieraceae , Quiinaceae , Peridiscaceae , Bixaceae , Cochlospermaceae , Tovariaceae , Lissocarpaceae ( Lissocarpa ), Brunelliaceae , Dulongiaceae , Columelliaceae , Julianiaceae , Picrodendraceae , Goupiaceae , Desfontainiaceae , Plocospermataceae , Tropaeolaceae , Dialypetalanthaceae ( Dialypetalanthus ), Nolanaceae ( Nolana ), Calyceraceae , Heliconiaceae , Cannaceae , Thurniaceae and Cyclanthaceae . Plant families that originated in

2726-693: The realm into bioregions , defined as "geographic clusters of ecoregions that may span several habitat types, but have strong biogeographic affinities, particularly at taxonomic levels higher than the species level (genus, family)." Laurel forest and other cloud forest are subtropical and mild temperate forest , found in areas with high humidity and relatively stable and mild temperatures. Tropical rainforest , tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests are highlight in Southern North America, Amazonia, Caribbean, Central America, Northern Andes and Central Andes. The Amazonia bioregion

2784-606: The shedding of pollen by motion of anthers. The dryness and its easy release by movement make it ideal for wind pollination. Wind pollination is the dominant form, but insects, small beetles, and flies can be pollinators. In the Neotropics, toucans and other birds help disperse the seeds of species with short infructescences, while bats are associated with species with long peduncles and spikes. Species growing near rivers, though, are usually dispersed by water. Cecropia spp. are generally not endangered; so no major conservation efforts are in place. Their abundance increases temporarily with

2842-435: The small light gaps (which are more shaded than normal), the most distinctive myrmecophytic Cecropia spp, are found. Species of Cecropia often display myrmecophytism as a form of biotic defense. D.W. Davidson said, Myrmecophytism is a mutualistic relationship formed with ant colonies, where the ants protect the tree from herbivory and the trees provide shelter and food for the ants. Along with protection against herbivory,

2900-416: The soil and grow very quickly. The trees are used in clear-cut areas because they retain the soil, create new biomass, and allow other types of plants to settle in the area. Berg and Rosselli stated that decoctions of leaves are made to stimulate the cardiac system, to treat asthma and pneumonia, to treat diabetes and as a diuretic. Powder of leaves is used for control of Parkinson's disease and extract of roots

2958-478: The time of first European contact ), in about 37 distinct language families and a further number of unclassified and isolate languages . Many of these languages and their cultures are also endangered. Accordingly, conservation in the Neotropical realm is a hot political concern, and raises many arguments about development versus indigenous versus ecological rights and access to or ownership of natural resources . The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) subdivides

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3016-503: The traits of pioneer species, though, as they occur evenly in the forest. The pioneer Cecropia species have a higher demand for light, occur in open habitats, relatively rapid growth rates, and short-lived leaves. According to McKey's theory, these pioneer species tend to invest more heavily in pearl bodies and less heavily in Mullerian bodies than more shade-tolerant species with slower intrinsic growth rates and longer leaf lifespans. In

3074-701: The trees. When the branches are cut, they release a watery, often mucilaginous sap, which turns black when it is exposed to the air. To prevent inhabitation by ants and occupation and damage by herbivorous insect larvae, the terminal buds and upper internodes are filled with mucilage. Several species' leafy twigs are covered by a waxy layer, making them bluish. Berg and Rosselli describe in detail six types of trichomes that can be recognized on Cecropia and more information on each can be found in their paper. They are: thick unicellular hairs, thin unicellular hairs, pluricellular trichomes , cystolith hairs, pearl glands (or pearl bodies ), and Müllerian bodies. Parts of

3132-484: The two, however, are: the petiole attaches at the base of the leaf rather than at the center of the leaf like Cecropia and Pourouma has leaf lobes that are triangular and pointed at the tip, whereas most Cecropia are rounded. Between 40 and 50% of the 61 species of Cecropia are montane or submontane Andean, with the majority of species in the northern part of the Andes, in Colombia and Ecuador. The Andean region

3190-442: The wood pulp was too high in resin and it was not suitable. The fibers of the bark can be twisted into rope and the ropes are manufactured for bowstrings and hammocks. The leaves can also be burned and the ashes mixed in with roasted and powdered coca leaves to be placed between the cheek and gum under the tongue as “dip”. The main human use of Cecropia trees is planting them in soil erosion-prone areas. The trees make few demands on

3248-848: The “100 of the World’s Worst Invasive Alien Species” by the Global Invasive Species Database. C. peltata was introduced to the Singapore Botanic Gardens in 1902 and has spread widely throughout Singapore along with C. pachystachya , which was introduced in the 1960s. The species is successful as an invasive species because of its ability to pollinate without the need for pollinators, the possible preferential liking for its fruits by frugivorous birds, and its lack of natural predators. Cecropia species have staminate and pistillate flowers on separate trees, more commonly referred to as

3306-445: Was also applied to a various species. Over the next decade, additional species were added by Bertoloni (1840), Martius (1841), and Liebmann (1851). Mixing of specimens was very common and a problem arose, which continues today, with many collections of Cecropia . Many species were also described by Hemsley (1883), Richter (1897), Donnell Smith (1899), Rusby (1907, 1910), Huber (1910), Robinson (1912), Pittier (1917), Bailey (1922), and

3364-485: Was originally part of the supercontinent of Gondwana , which included Africa, Australia, India, New Zealand, and Antarctica, and the Neotropic shares many plant and animal lineages with these other continents, including marsupial mammals and the Antarctic flora . After the final breakup of the Gondwana about 110 million years ago, South America was separated from Africa and drifted north and west. 66 million years ago,

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