75-763: The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti was an Indian dynasty in Central India . The Chandelas ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called Jejakabhukti ) between the 9th and the 13th centuries. They belonged to the Chandel clan of the Rajputs . The Chandelas initially ruled as feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Kanyakubja (Kannauj). The 10th century Chandela ruler Yashovarman became practically independent, although he continued to acknowledge
150-610: A cavalry. He is unfriendly to the Arabs, still he acknowledges that the king of the Arabs is the greatest of rulers. Among the princes of India there is no greater foe of the Islamic faith than he. He has got riches, and his camels and horses are numerous." After bringing much of Rajasthan under his control, Vatsaraja embarked to become "master of all the land lying between the two seas." Contemporary Jijasena's Harivamsha Purana describes him as "master of western quarter". According to
225-526: A definition: The country termed Central India is, roughly speaking, the region lying between the twenty-first and twenty-fifth degrees of north latitude, and the seventy-third and eightieth degrees of east longitude... Depending on definition, Indore , the commercial capital of Madhya Pradesh, is the largest city in the region. Other major cities include Raipur , Bhopal , Gwalior , Jabalpur , and Bilaspur . The states share many linguistic and cultural characteristics with North India including
300-604: A force of camels. Since Tamin was a new governor he had a force of Syrian cavalry from Damascus , local Arab contingents, converted Hindus of Sindh, and foreign mercenaries like the Turkics . All together the invading army may have had anywhere between 10 and 15,000 cavalry, 5000 infantry, and 2000 camels. The Arab chronicler Sulaiman describes the army of the Pratiharas as it stood in 851 CE, "The ruler of Gurjara maintains numerous forces and no other Indian prince has so fine
375-542: A foreign origin for these dynasties. According to this theory, the foreigners were admitted in the Hindu caste system after performing a fire ritual. However, this legend is not found in the earliest available copies of Prithviraj Raso . It is based on a Paramara legend; the 16th century Rajput bards claim heroic descent of clans in order to foster Rajput unity against the Mughals . The original centre of Pratihara power
450-516: A great king. This child was the dynasty's progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a philosopher's stone and taught him politics. The dynasty's own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the Mahoba-Khanda is a historically unreliable text. Prithviraj Raso is also considered an historically unreliable text. British indologist V. A. Smith theorized that
525-534: A great raid led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III who, in about 916, sacked Kannauj. Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the dynasty never regained its former influence. Their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their allegiance until, by the end of the tenth century, the dynasty controlled little more than the Gangetic Doab . Their last important king, Rajyapala,
600-521: A number of places. The settlements of humans in present-day Madhya Pradesh developed primarily in the valleys of rivers such as Narmada, Chambal, and Betwa. During the early Vedic period, the Vindhya mountains formed the southern boundary of the Indo-Aryan territory. The Holkars of Indore , Scindias of Gwalior , Puars of Dewas Junior , Dewas Senior and Dhar State were powerful families of
675-713: A slightly different account, in which Chandratreya is mentioned as a son of Indu (the Moon) and a grandson of Atri. The 1195 CE Baghari inscription and the 1260 CE Ajaygadh inscription contain similar accounts. The Balabhadra-vilasa also names Atri among the ancestors of the Chandelas. Another Khajuraho inscription describes the Chandela king Dhanga as a member of the Vrishni clan of the Yadavas (who also claimed to be part of
750-514: A surprise attack by ( Ghurid ) Turkic forces, and unknowingly camped at the Chandela capital Mahoba . This led to a brief conflict between the Chandelas and the Chauhans, before Prithviraj left for Delhi. Sometime later, Prithviraj invaded the Chandela kingdom and sacked Mahoba. Paramardi cowardly took shelter in the Kalanjara fort. The Chandela force, led by Alha , Udal and other generals,
825-463: A very short time. Madanavarman's grandson Paramardi-deva was the last powerful Chandela king. Paramardi (reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) ascended the Chandela throne at a young age. While the early years of his reign were peaceful, around 1182–1183 CE, the Chahamana ruler Prithviraj Chauhan invaded the Chandela kingdom. According to the medieval legendary ballads, Prithviraj's army lost its way after
SECTION 10
#1732782944768900-477: Is a loosely defined geographical region of India . There is no clear official definition and various ones may be used. One common definition consists of the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh , which are included in almost all definitions. Like some other definitions this takes the part of northern India that is "central" on an east–west axis. Thus the Central Zonal Council set up by
975-537: Is a matter of controversy. R. C. Majumdar, on the basis of a verse in the Harivamsha-Purana, 783 CE, the interpretation of which he conceded was not free from difficulty, held that Vatsaraja ruled at Ujjain. Dasharatha Sharma, interpreting it differently located the original capital in the Bhinmala Jalor area. M. W. Meister and Shanta Rani Sharma concur with his conclusion in view of the fact that
1050-483: Is credited with several military victories in eulogistic inscriptions. Rahila's son Harsha played an important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara king Mahipala , possibly after a Rashtrakuta invasion or after Mahiapala's conflict with his step-brother Bhoja II . Harsha's son Yashovarman (r. c. 925–950 CE) continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty, but became practically independent. He conquered
1125-641: Is generally agreed. This definition includes either some or all of the Deccan , in particular Maharashtra , and may or may not include some of the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the north. If Maharashtra is included "Central India" includes a good part of the western coast, including Mumbai , but the eastern coast is never included, as Odisha stretches down to meet Andhra Pradesh , and these are counted in Eastern and Southern India respectively (and none of
1200-731: Is part of the Hindi Belt , and Modern Standard Hindi is the predominant language. Other Hindi belt languages such as Chhattisgarhi are also common regionally. Besides these Indo-Aryan languages , the Munda-family language Korku is also spoken in Central India. Gurjara-Pratiharas The Pratihara dynasty , also called the Gurjara-Pratiharas , the Pratiharas of Kannauj or the Imperial Pratiharas ,
1275-500: Is that Gurjara was the name of the tribe to which the dynasty belonged, and Pratihara was a clan of this tribe. Among those who believe that the term Gurjara was originally a tribal designation, there are disagreements over whether they were native Indians or foreigners. The proponents of the foreign origin theory point out that the Pratihars suddenly emerged as a political power in north India around sixth century CE, shortly after
1350-738: The Ghaznavid invasions. These branches fought each other for territory and one of the branches ruled Mandore till the 14th century. This Pratihara branch had marital ties with Rao Chunda of the Rathore clan and gave Mandore in dowry to Chunda. This was specifically done to form an alliance against the Turks of the Tughlaq Empire . There are notable examples of architecture from the Pratihara era, including sculptures and carved panels. Their temples, constructed in an open pavilion style. One of
1425-531: The Gujarat Rashtrakuta dynasty and his younger brother. Bhoja led a cavalry raid into Gujarat against the Dhruva while supporting his Dhruva's younger brother. Although the raid was repulsed by Dhruva II, Bhoja was able to retain dominion over parts of Gujarat and Malwa. Bhoja's feudatory, the Guhilas Samanta named Harsha of Chatsu , is described as : “defeating the northern rulers with
1500-582: The Gurjaras . These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III . Yashovarman's reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho. Unlike
1575-515: The Hunas invasion of that region. According to them Gujara-Pratihara were "likely" formed from a fusion of the Alchon Huns ("White Huns") and native Indian elements, and can probably be considered as a Hunnic state , although its precise origins remain unclear. Critics of the foreign origin theory argue that there is no conclusive evidence of their foreign origin: they were well-assimilated in
SECTION 20
#17327829447681650-553: The Maratha Empire which were based in Central India. The territories that now comprises Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh were ruled by numerous princes who entered into subsidiary alliance with the British . After independence , the states of Madhya Bharat , Vindhya Pradesh , and Bhopal were merged into Madhya Pradesh in 1956. In 2000, the new state of Chhattisgarh was carved out of Madhya Pradesh . The region
1725-535: The Pratiharas fought back repulsed them from fort of Sindan, pushing the Arabs out of Kutch between 833 and 842 AD. Later on, the Arabs lost a best part of Sindh . This was the major conflict between the forces of Mihirbhoja and Imran ibn-musa Around 880, the Gurjara-Pratiharas were defeated in large battle in Ujjain by Krishna II, the Rastrakuta king of Gujarat. However, retribution likely soon followed on
1800-661: The Vishvanatha Temple (c. 999–1002 CE) and the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE) were constructed during the reigns of Yashovarman, Dhanga and Vidyadhara respectively. These Nagara-style temples are representative of the most fully developed style at Khajuraho. By the end of Vidyadhara's reign, the Ghaznavid invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the Kalachuri king Gangeya-deva conquered eastern parts of
1875-575: The Arab army under Junaid and Tamin in the Caliphate campaigns in India . Under Nagabhata II , the Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra , who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja . Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I , the Pratihara dynasty reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala,
1950-517: The Caliph. Arguments of doubtful validity have often been put forward to explain this unique phenomenon. Currently it is believed that it was the power of the Pratihara army that effectively barred the progress of the Muslims beyond the confines of Sindh, their first conquest for nearly three hundred years. In the light of later events this might be regarded as the "Chief contribution of the Pratiharas to
2025-709: The Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna. Kirtivarman's son Sallakshanavarman achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A Mau inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna doab ). His son Jayavarman was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance. Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he
2100-687: The Chandela power, and ruled as a sovereign until around 1202–1203 CE, when Qutb al-Din Aibak , the Ghurid Empire governor of Delhi , invaded the Chandela kingdom. According to Taj-ul-Maasir , a chronicle of the Delhi Sultanate , Paramardi surrendered to the Delhi forces. He promised to pay tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could keep this promise. His dewan offered some resistance to
2175-596: The Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman's son Lakshmivarman. Jayasimha Siddharaja , the Chaulukya king of Gujarat, also invaded the Paramara territory, which was located between the Chandela and the Chaulukya kingdoms. This brought him in conflict with Madanavarman. The result of this conflict appears to have been inconclusive, as records of both
2250-441: The Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as Balabhadra-vilasa and Prabodha-chandrodaya , suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary Lunar dynasty ( Chandravansha ). A 954 CE Khajuraho inscription states that the dynasty's first king Nannuka was a descendant of sage Chandratreya, who was a son of Atri . A 1002 CE Khajuraho inscription gives
2325-515: The Chandelas were of either Bhar or Gond origin. Some other scholars including R. C. Majumdar also supported this theory. The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh. Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also, Rani Durgavati , whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of Garha-Mandla . Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya
Chandelas of Jejakabhukti - Misplaced Pages Continue
2400-537: The Hindu and Jain temples at Khajuraho . Three other important Chandela strongholds were Jayapura-Durga (modern Ajaigarh ), Kalanjara (modern Kalinjar ) and Mahotsava-Nagara (modern Mahoba ). Other smaller Chandela sites include Chandpur, Deogarh , Dudahi, Kakadeo , Madanpur and Aharji . Based on epigraphic records, the historians have come up with the following list of Chandela rulers of Jejākabhukti ( IAST names in brackets): Central India Central India
2475-613: The Indian culture. Moreover, if they invaded India through the north-west, it is inexplicable why would they choose to settle in the semi-arid area of present-day Rajasthan, rather than the fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain . According to the Agnivansha legend given in the later manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso , the Pratiharas, Parmar, Chauhan and Chalukya dynasties originated from a sacrificial fire-pit (agnikunda) at Mount Abu . Some colonial-era historians interpreted this myth to suggest
2550-492: The Indian government includes both these states, plus Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand to the north, the last taking the region to the border with Tibet/China in the Himalayas . Another approach, historically more usual, is to base "Central India" on a north-south axis, making it the part of India that is south of North India and north of South India ; the definition of South India also varies hugely, but that of North India
2625-471: The Kalachuri king Gaya-Karna , and possibly annexed the northern part of the Baghelkhand region. However, the Chandelas lost this territory to Gaya-Karna's successor Narasimha . Madanavarman also captured the territory on the western periphery of the Paramara kingdom, around Bhilsa (Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king Yashovarman or his son Jayavarman . Once again,
2700-508: The Lunar dynasty). The Mahoba-Khanda legend of the dynasty's origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the Gaharwar king of Benares , had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god Chandra saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become
2775-672: The Pratihara suzerainty. By the time of his successor Dhanga , the Chandelas had become a sovereign power. Their power rose and declined as they fought battles with the neighbouring dynasties, especially the Paramaras of Malwa and the Kalachuris of Tripuri . From the 11th century onwards, the Chandelas faced raids by the northern Muslim dynasties, including the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids . The Chandela power effectively ended around
2850-451: The Pratiharas as "Gurjara". The term "Gurjara-Pratihara" occurs only in the Rajor inscription of a feudatory ruler named Mathanadeva, who describes himself as a "Gurjara-Pratihara". According to one school of thought, Gurjara was the name of the territory (see Gurjara-desha ) originally ruled by the Pratiharas; gradually, the term came to denote the people of this territory. An opposing theory
2925-485: The Pratiharas regained the city, their position continued to weaken in the tenth century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously fighting off Turkic attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the south and the Pala advances in the east. The Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to their feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India around 950. By
3000-662: The Radhanpur Plate and Prithviraja Vijaya , Vatsaraja led an expedition against the Palas under Dharmapala of Bengal As such, the Palas came into conflict from time to time with the Imperial Pratiharas. According to the above inscription Dharmapala , was deprived of his two white Royal Umbrellas, and fled, followed by the Pratihara forces under general Durlabharaja Chauhan of Shakambhari . The Prithviraja Vijaya mentions Durlabhraj I as having "washed his sword at
3075-694: The advantage of preserving the common "UP" abbreviation for what was formerly the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh . This definition is rather similar to the territories, all princely states , grouped by the British Raj in 1854 as the Central India Agency (not to be confused with the Central Provinces , bordering this to the south). The Memoir of Central India by Sir John Malcolm , Governor of Bombay begins with
Chandelas of Jejakabhukti - Misplaced Pages Continue
3150-406: The beginning of the 13th century, following Chahamana and Ghurid invasions. The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture, most notably for the temples at their original capital Khajuraho . They also commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at other places, including their strongholds of Ajaigarh , Kalinjar and their later capital Mahoba . The origin of
3225-476: The center of the Pratihara state, which covered much of northern India during the peak of their power, c. 836–910. Mihira Bhoja first consolidated his territories by crushing the rebellious feudatories in Rajasthan, before turning his attention against the old enemies the Palas and Rastrakutas. After consolidating his rule, he stepped into a war of succession for the throne of Gujarat between Dhruva II of
3300-593: The confluence of the river Ganga and the ocean, and savouring the land of the Gaudas". The Baroda Inscription (AD 812) states Nagabhata defeated the Dharmapala. Through vigorous campaigning, Vatsraj had extended his dominions to include a large part of northern India, from the Thar Desert in the west up to the frontiers of Bengal in the east. The metropolis of Kannauj had suffered a power vacuum following
3375-464: The death of Harsha without an heir, which resulted in the disintegration of the Empire of Harsha . This space was eventually filled by Yashovarman around a century later but his position was dependent upon an alliance with Lalitaditya Muktapida . When Muktapida undermined Yashovarman, a tri-partite struggle for control of the city developed, involving the Pratiharas, whose territory was at that time to
3450-409: The earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman's successor Dhanga (r. c. 950–999 CE) do not mention any Pratihara overlord. This indicates that Dhanga formally established the Chandela sovereignty. A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of Kosala , Kratha (part of Vidarbha region), Kuntala , and Simhala listened humbly to the commands of Dhanga's officers. It also claims that
3525-650: The east of the Sutlej river." Kalhana 's Rajatarangini states that the territories of Bhoja extended to Kashmir in the north, and Bhoja had conquered Punjab by defeating ruling 'Thakkiyaka' dynasty . After Devapala's death, Bhoja defeated the Pala emperor Narayanapala and expanded his boundaries eastward into Pala-held territories near Gorakhpur . In the early 8th century, Arabs fought on and off to take over Sindh . Imran ibn-Musa, who governed Sindh, tried to expand Arab rule to nearby areas. When Bhoja became powerful
3600-618: The eastern coast is part of the Hindi Belt ). Another definition is "the hill-country south of the Ganges plain", but north of the Deccan. Some official divisions of the country do not recognise any "Central" division at all. Another definition, which treats the Deccan as a different unit, defines "Central India" as Madhya Pradesh and "eastern and central Uttar Pradesh ". "Madhya Pradesh" means "central province", while "Uttar Pradesh" means "northern province", though when adopted in 1950 it had
3675-488: The end of the tenth century the Pratihara domains had dwindled to a small state centered on Kannauj. Mahmud of Ghazni captured Kannauj in 1018, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. He was subsequently captured and killed by the Chandela ruler Vidyadhara . The Chandela ruler then placed Rajapala's son Trilochanpala on the throne as a proxy. Jasapala, the last Pratihara ruler of Kannauj, died in 1036. The Imperial Pratihara dynasty broke into several small states after
3750-401: The extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south. The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent . During this period, Imperial Pratihara took
3825-510: The family continued ruling Kalanjara : its ruler was killed by Sher Shah Suri 's army in 1545 CE. Another minor branch ruled at Mahoba : Durgavati , one of its princesses married into the Gond royal family of Mandla . Some other ruling families also claimed Chandela descent (see Chandel ). The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture. They commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at various places. The most famous example of their cultural achievements are
SECTION 50
#17327829447683900-421: The founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around Khajuraho . According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka's successor Vakpati defeated several enemies. Vakpati's sons Jayashakti (Jeja) and Vijayashakti (Vija) consolidated the Chandela power. According to a Mahoba inscription, the Chandela territory was named "Jejakabhukti" after the Jayashakti. Vijayashakti's successor Rahila
3975-525: The help of the mighty elephant force”, and “loyally presenting to Bhoja the special ‘Shrivamsha’ breed of horses, which could easily cross seas of sand." Besides being a conqueror, Bhoja was a great diplomat. The kingdoms which were conquered and acknowledged his suzerainty includes Travani, Valla, Mada, Arya, Gujaratra, Lata Parvarta and Chandelas of Bundelkhand . Bhoja's Daulatpura - Dausa Inscription (AD 843), confirms his rule in Dausa region. Another inscription states that,"Bhoja's territories extended to
4050-414: The imperial title Maharajadhiraja , which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the Bundelas , the Baghelas and the Khangars . Hammiravarman was succeeded by Viravarman II, whose titles do not indicate a high political status. One minor branch of
4125-414: The important fortress of Kalanjara . A 953–954 CE Khajuraho inscription credits him with several other military successes, including against Gaudas (identified with the Palas ), the Khasas , the Chedis (the Kalachuris of Tripuri ), the Kosalas (possibly the Somavamshis ), the Mithila (possibly a small tributary ruler), Malavas (identified with the Paramaras ), the Kurus , the Kashmiris and
4200-448: The invading forces, but was ultimately subdued. The 16th century historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king's decision to surrender to the Delhi forces. The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by Trailokyavarman , Viravarman and Bhojavarman . The next ruler Hammiravarman (r. c. 1288–1311 CE) did not use
4275-454: The kingdom. Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara's successor Vijayapala (r. c. 1035–1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle. However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala's reign. The Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period. Vijayapala's elder son Devavavarman was subjugated by Gangeya's son Lakshmi-Karna . His younger brother Kirttivarman resurrected
4350-400: The kingdoms claim victory. A Kalanjara inscription suggests that Madanavarman defeated Jayasimha. On the other hand, the various chronicles of Gujarat claim that Jayasimha either defeated Madanavarman or extracted a tribute from him. Madanavarman maintained friendly relations with his northern neighbours, the Gahadavalas . Madanavarman's son Yashovarman II either did not rule, or ruled for
4425-444: The most notable Pratihara style of architecture was Khajuraho , built by their vassals, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand . Māru-Gurjara architecture was developed during Pratihara Empire. Historians of India, since the days of Elphinstone , have wondered at the slow progress of Muslim invaders in India, as compared with their rapid advance in other parts of the world. The Arabs possibly only stationed small invasions independent of
4500-429: The part of the Pratiharas, as by the end of his reign, Bhoja had successfully exterminated the Gujarat Rashtrakuta line. Hudud-ul-Alam, a tenth-century Persian geographic text, states that most of the kings of India acknowledged the supremacy of the powerful 'Rai of Qinnauj', ( Kannauj was the capital of the Imperial Pratiharas) whose mighty army had 150,000 strong cavalry and 800 war elephants. Bhoja II (910–912)
4575-437: The port of Bharuch in Gujarat. He established his capital at Avanti in Malwa, and checked the expansion of the Arabs, who had established themselves in Sind . In this battle (738 CE), Nagabhata led a confederacy of Pratiharas to defeat the Muslim Arabs who had till then been pressing on victorious through West Asia and Iran . An inscription by Mihira Bhoja ascribes Nagabhata with having appeared like Vishnu "in response to
SECTION 60
#17327829447684650-466: The prayers of the oppressed people to crush the large armies of the powerful Mleccha ruler, the destroyer of virtue". Nagabhata I was followed by two weak successors, his nephews Devraj and Kakkuka, who were in turn succeeded by Vatsraja (775–805). In the Gwalior inscription, it is recorded that Pratihara emperor Nagabhata "crushed the large army of the powerful Mlechcha king." This large army consisted of cavalry, infantry, siege artillery, and probably
4725-452: The predominance of Hindi . The Bhimbetka caves show evidence of paleolithic settlements in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Stone age tools have also been discovered at various places along the Narmada river valley. Chalcolithic sites have been discovered at a number of places including Eran , Kayatha, Maheshwar, Nagda, and Navdatoli. Rock shelters with cave paintings, the earliest of which can be dated to 30,000 BCE, have also been discovered at
4800-529: The territory he inherited. His son Vidyadhara killed the Pratihara king of Kannauj (possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the Ghaznavid invader Mahmud of Ghazni . Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara's kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud. Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple . The Chandela art and architecture reached its zenith during this period. The Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE),
4875-407: The title of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta ( Great King of Kings of Aryan Lands ). Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style temples. The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho , now a UNESCO World Heritage Site . The power of the Pratihara dynasty was weakened by dynastic strife. It was further diminished as a result of
4950-413: The west and north, the Palas of Bengal in the east and the Rashtrakutas , whose base lay at the south in the Deccan . Vatsaraja successfully challenged and defeated the Pala ruler Dharmapala and Dantidurga , the Rashtrakuta king, for control of Kannauj. Around 786, the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva (c. 780–793) crossed the Narmada River into Malwa, and from there tried to capture Kannauj. Vatsraja
5025-437: The wives of the kings of Andhra , Anga , Kanchi and Raḍha resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns. Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the Vishvanatha Temple . Dhanga's successor Ganda appears to have retained
5100-561: The writer of the Jaina narrative Kuvalayamala states that it was composed at Jalor in the time of Vatsaraja in 778 CE, which is five years before the composition of Harivamsha-Purana. Nagabhata I (739–760), was originally perhaps a feudatory of the Chavdas of Bhillamala. He gained prominence after the downfall of the Chavda kingdom in the course of resisting the invading forces led by the Arabs who controlled Sindh. Nagabhata Pratihara I (730–756) later extended his control east and south from Mandor, conquering Malwa as far as Gwalior and
5175-424: Was a prominent medieval Indian dynasty which ruled over the Kingdom of Kannauj . It initially ruled the Gurjaradesa until its victory in the Tripartite Struggle in 816 which secured its right to the throne of Kannauj. Cadet branches of the dynasty ruled other minor states in the subcontinent. The Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River . Nagabhata I defeated
5250-517: Was defeated by the Dhruva Dharavarsha of the Rashtrakuta dynasty around 800. Vatsaraja was succeeded by Nagabhata II (805–833), who was initially defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III (793–814), but later recovered Malwa from the Rashtrakutas, conquered Kannauj and the Indo-Gangetic Plain as far as Bihar from the Palas, and again checked the Muslims in the west. He rebuilt the great Shiva temple at Somnath in Gujarat, which had been demolished in an Arab raid from Sindh . Kannauj became
5325-424: Was defeated in this battle. According to the various ballads, Paramardi either committed suicide out of shame or retired to Gaya . Prithviraj Chauhan's raid of Mahoba is corroborated by his Madanpur stone inscriptions. However, there are several instances of historical inaccuracies in the bardic legends. For example, it is known that Paramardi did not retire or die immediately after the Chauhan victory. He restored
5400-510: Was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1018. The origin of the dynasty and the meaning of the term "Gurjara" in its name is a topic of debate among historians. The rulers of this dynasty used the self-designation "Pratihara" for their clan, and never referred to themselves as Gurjaras. They claimed descent from the legendary hero Lakshmana , who is said to have acted as a pratihara ("door-keeper") for his brother Rama . Multiple inscriptions of their neighbouring dynasties describe
5475-401: Was not a tribal deity. Also, the dynasty's association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty's progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories. Finally, Durgavati's marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case. The Chandelas were originally vassals of the Gurjara-Pratiharas . Nannuka (r. c. 831 –845 CE),
5550-624: Was overthrown by Mahipala I (912–944). Several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand , the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal , the Tomaras of Haryana , and the Chahamanas of Shakambhari . The south Indian Emperor Indra III (c. 914–928) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty briefly captured Kannauj in 916, and although
5625-523: Was succeeded by his uncle Prithvivarman , the younger son of Kirttivarman. The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy. By the time Prithvivarman's son Madanavarman (r. c. 1128–1165 CE) ascended the throne, the neighbouring Kalachuri and Paramara kingdoms had been weakened by enemy invasions. Taking advantage of this situation, Madanavarman defeated
#767232