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84-532: Chaussee is an historic term used in German-speaking countries for early, metalled , rural highways, designed by road engineers, as opposed to the hitherto, traditional, unpaved country roads. The term is no longer used in modern road construction in Western Europe , but survives in road names and is used by historians. In Eastern Europe and the post-Soviet states it remains a generic term for

168-412: A fatiguing or hypnotic effect upon the driver over the course of a long journey. Composite pavements combine a Portland cement concrete sublayer with an asphalt overlay. They are usually used to rehabilitate existing roadways rather than in new construction. Asphalt overlays are sometimes laid over distressed concrete to restore a smooth wearing surface. A disadvantage of this method is that movement in

252-617: A common paved highway outside of built-up areas, but they may transition into prospekts within towns and cities. The German word Chaussee was borrowed from the French chaussée by the German construction industry in the 18th century. The French word, in turn, went back to the Gallo-Romanic via calciata and meant a road surfaced with firmly compacted crushed rock bound with lime. Contemporary German translations of

336-473: A continuous row of milestones . The routing of chaussees was also increasingly demanding. For example, they had to follow "the shortest possible distance between two given points" as well as "gradients that were not too inclined from the horizontal (three to five per cent), in order to keep the demands on animal-drawn vehicles and brakes low; they should have lay bys (24 - 30 feet wide, i.e. eight to ten metres), and also be secure from flooding, i.e. built on

420-400: A distance of about one and a half hour's travel, then a league (German: Meile ), road huts ( Chausseehäuser ) were built for the money collectors ( Chausseegeldeinnehmer ), thus introducing an early form of toll system . In the office of the chaussee watchman ( Chausseewärter ), who had responsibility for a section of road, there was also the forerunner of state-organized, road maintenance:

504-565: A floor beaten or rammed down, through Old French pavement . The meaning of a beaten-down floor was obsolete before the word entered English. Pavement, in the form of beaten gravel , dates back before the emergence of anatomically modern humans . Pavement laid in patterns like mosaics were commonly used by the Romans. The bearing capacity and service life of a pavement can be raised dramatically by arranging good drainage by an open ditch or covered drains to reduce moisture content in

588-706: A given period of time. Pavement design methods are continuously evolving. Among these are the Shell Pavement design method, and the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 1993/98 "Guide for Design of Pavement Structures". A mechanistic-empirical design guide was developed through the NCHRP process, resulting in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which

672-751: A gravel road or not often hinges on traffic volume. It has been found that maintenance costs for gravel roads often exceed the maintenance costs for paved or surface-treated roads when traffic volumes exceed 200 vehicles per day. Some communities are finding it makes sense to convert their low-volume paved roads to aggregate surfaces. Pavers (or paviours ), generally in the form of pre-cast concrete blocks, are often used for aesthetic purposes, or sometimes at port facilities that see long-duration pavement loading. Pavers are rarely used in areas that see high-speed vehicle traffic. Brick , cobblestone , sett , wood plank , and wood block pavements such as Nicolson pavement , were once common in urban areas throughout

756-412: A heavy weight is dropped on the concrete to induce cracking, then a heavy roller is used to seat the resultant pieces into the subbase. The main difference between the two processes is the equipment used to break the concrete pavement and the size of the resulting pieces. The theory is that frequent small cracks will spread thermal stress over a wider area than infrequent large joints, reducing the stress on

840-628: A large straight street in a city, often created as part of a large scheme of urban planning such as Baron Haussmann 's remodelling of Paris or the L'Enfant Plan for Washington D.C.; "avenues" will typically be the main roads. This pattern is very often followed in the United States, indeed all the Americas, but in the United Kingdom this sense is less strong and the name is used more randomly, mostly for suburban streets developed in

924-417: A layer of large rocks, covered by a layer of smaller gravel. By the late 18th and early 19th centuries, new methods of highway construction had been pioneered by the work of two British engineers: Thomas Telford and John Loudon McAdam . Telford's method of road building involved the digging of a large trench in which a foundation of heavy rock was set. He designed his roads so that they sloped downwards from

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1008-472: A manner similar to metals ), the damage done to pavement increases with the fourth power of the axle load of the vehicles traveling on it. According to the AASHO Road Test , heavily loaded trucks can do more than 10,000 times the damage done by a normal passenger car. Tax rates for trucks are higher than those for cars in most countries for this reason, though they are not levied in proportion to

1092-442: A port on the south coast of the island, which had side drains, a 200 mm thick pavement of sandstone blocks bound with clay - gypsum mortar , covered by a layer of basaltic flagstones and had separate shoulders . This road could be considered superior to any Roman road . Roman roads varied from simple corduroy roads to paved roads using deep roadbeds of tamped rubble as an underlying layer to ensure that they kept dry, as

1176-484: A process called milling . This pavement is commonly referred to as reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP). RAP can be transported to an asphalt plant, where it will be stockpiled for use in new pavement mixes, or it may be recycled in-place using the techniques described below. Bituminous surface treatment (BST) or chipseal is used mainly on low-traffic roads, but also as a sealing coat to rejuvenate an asphalt concrete pavement. It generally consists of aggregate spread over

1260-550: A raised embankment, where they run through lowland. In introducing the chaussee concept in the 18th/19th centuries, Europeans once again reached a technological standard for long distance highways that had not been seen since Roman roads were built. The first roads of the chaussee type were built in Western Europe in the early 18th century, coming from Holland at the end of the baroque period. For example, in Swabia ,

1344-526: A research facility near Auburn University , the NCAT Pavement Test Track , that is used to test experimental asphalt pavements for durability. In addition to repair costs, the condition of a road surface has economic effects for road users. Rolling resistance increases on rough pavement, as does wear and tear of vehicle components. It has been estimated that poor road surfaces cost the average US driver $ 324 per year in vehicle repairs, or

1428-495: A so-called summer track ( Sommerweg ). The stone carriageway was the paved section with a base course of gravel or broken rock as a subgrade and a covering of sand and loam. The summer track was for unshod animals. It ran next to the stone track and was unmetalled or only lightly metalled and not usable in winter. By planting regular rows of trees, the benefits of an avenue could be realised: protection from sun and wind as well as better orientation. Additional aids sometimes included

1512-462: A speed limit of 30 km/h, for the purpose of traffic calming . One popular measure is to use brick paving - the noise and vibration slows motorists down. At the same time, it is not uncommon for cycle paths alongside a road to have a smoother surface than the road itself. Although rarely constructed today, early-style macadam and tarmac pavements are sometimes found beneath modern asphalt concrete or Portland cement concrete pavements, because

1596-429: A sprayed-on asphalt emulsion or cut-back asphalt cement. The aggregate is then embedded into the asphalt by rolling it, typically with a rubber-tired roller . This type of surface is described by a wide variety of regional terms including "chip seal", "tar and chip", "oil and stone", "seal coat", "sprayed seal", "surface dressing", "microsurfacing", "seal", or simply as "bitumen". BST is used on hundreds of miles of

1680-504: A total of $ 67 billion. Also, it has been estimated that small improvements in road surface conditions can decrease fuel consumption between 1.8 and 4.7%. Road surface markings are used on paved roadways to provide guidance and information to drivers and pedestrians. It can be in the form of mechanical markers such as cat's eyes , botts' dots and rumble strips , or non-mechanical markers such as paints, thermoplastic , plastic and epoxy . Avenue (landscape) The French term allée

1764-506: A traffic volume where the annual average daily traffic is 1,200 vehicles per day or less. There is some structural strength if the road surface combines a sub base and base and is topped with a double-graded seal aggregate with emulsion. Besides the 4,929 kilometres (3,063 mi) of granular pavements maintained in Saskatchewan, around 40% of New Zealand roads are unbound granular pavement structures. The decision whether to pave

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1848-578: Is aggregate -reinforced thermoplastic which can be heat applied to the top layer of the brick-pattern surface. Other coating materials over stamped asphalt are paints and two-part epoxy coating. Roadway surfacing choices are known to affect the intensity and spectrum of sound emanating from the tire/surface interaction. Initial applications of noise studies occurred in the early 1970s. Noise phenomena are highly influenced by vehicle speed. Roadway surface types contribute differential noise effects of up to 4 dB , with chip seal type and grooved roads being

1932-698: Is a low-cost road surface using a 16–30-millimetre-thick ( 5 ⁄ 8 – 1 + 1 ⁄ 8  in) mixture of bitumen and crushed rock. Gravel is known to have been used extensively in the construction of roads by soldiers of the Roman Empire (see Roman road ) but in 1998 a limestone-surfaced road, thought to date back to the Bronze Age , was found at Yarnton in Oxfordshire, Britain. Applying gravel, or " metalling ", has had two distinct usages in road surfacing. The term road metal refers to

2016-847: Is applied at temperatures over 150 °C (300 °F) with a free floating screed . Warm mix asphalt is applied at temperatures of 95–120 °C (200–250 °F), resulting in reduced energy usage and emissions of volatile organic compounds . Cold mix asphalt is often used on lower-volume rural roads, where hot mix asphalt would cool too much on the long trip from the asphalt plant to the construction site. An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1,200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete,

2100-440: Is done quickly on the wearing course, potholes will form. The freeze-thaw cycle in cold climates will dramatically accelerate pavement deterioration, once water can penetrate the surface. Clay and fumed silica nanoparticles may potentially be used as efficient UV-anti aging coatings in asphalt pavements. If the road is still structurally sound, a bituminous surface treatment, such as a chipseal or surface dressing can prolong

2184-402: Is needed (otherwise more pumps would be needed in the water distribution system) and rainwater is not polluted because it no longer mixes with polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the earth. A previous disadvantage was that they had a higher initial cost and could be more time-consuming to construct. This cost can typically be offset through the long life cycle of the pavement and

2268-408: Is the durable surface material laid down on an area intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic , such as a road or walkway . In the past, gravel road surfaces, macadam , hoggin , cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but these have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a compacted base course . Asphalt mixtures have been used in pavement construction since

2352-435: Is to use rubber imprinting tools to press over a thin layer of cement to create decorative concrete . Another method is to use a brick pattern stencil and apply a surfacing material over the stencil. Materials that can be applied to give the color of the brick and skid resistance can be in many forms. An example is to use colored polymer-modified concrete slurry which can be applied by screeding or spraying. Another material

2436-769: Is used for avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens, as well as boulevards such as the Grande Allée in Quebec City , Canada, and Karl-Marx-Allee in Berlin . The avenue is one of the oldest implements in the history of gardens . An Avenue of Sphinxes still leads to the tomb of the pharaoh Hatshepsut . Avenues similarly defined by guardian stone lions lead to the Ming tombs in China. British archaeologists have adopted highly specific criteria for "avenues" within

2520-559: Is used on secondary highways with low traffic volume and minimal weight loading. Construction involves minimal subgrade preparation, following by covering with a 50-to-100-millimetre (2–4 in) cold mix asphalt aggregate. The Operation Division of the Ministry of Highways and Infrastructure in Saskatchewan has the responsibility of maintaining 6,102 kilometres (3,792 mi) of thin membrane surface (TMS) highways. Otta seal

2604-680: The Alaska Highway and other similar roadways in Alaska , the Yukon Territory , and northern British Columbia . The ease of application of BST is one reason for its popularity, but another is its flexibility, which is important when roadways are laid down over unstable terrain that thaws and softens in the spring. Other types of BSTs include micropaving, slurry seals and Novachip. These are laid down using specialized and proprietary equipment. They are most often used in urban areas where

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2688-726: The American Midwest , starting in 1914 west of Malta, Illinois , while using concrete with the specified concrete "ideal section" for the Lincoln Highway in Lake County, Indiana , during 1922 and 1923. Concrete roadways may produce more noise than asphalt from tire noise on cracks and expansion joints. A concrete pavement composed of multiple slabs of uniform size will produce a periodic sound and vibration in each vehicle as its tires pass over each expansion joint. These monotonous repeated sounds and vibrations can cause

2772-650: The Indus Valley Civilisation on the Indian subcontinent from around the same time. Improvements in metallurgy meant that by 2000 BC stone-cutting tools were generally available in the Middle East and Greece allowing local streets to be paved. Notably, in about 2000 BC, the Minoans built a 50 km paved road from Knossos in northern Crete through the mountains to Gortyn and Lebena ,

2856-475: The railway era began. For the Altona-Kiel Chaussee opened in 1832, for example, the benefit is quantified: a coach needed 16 hours on the old road, but only 9 hours on the somewhat longer chaussee . A messenger on horseback covered the route in six hours. Because of the stable substructure and smoother road surface, a horse and cart could carry three times the load. Along the chaussees , at

2940-522: The 1920s. The viscous nature of the bitumen binder allows asphalt concrete to sustain significant plastic deformation , although fatigue from repeated loading over time is the most common failure mechanism. Most asphalt surfaces are laid on a gravel base, which is generally at least as thick as the asphalt layer, although some 'full depth' asphalt surfaces are laid directly on the native subgrade . In areas with very soft or expansive subgrades such as clay or peat , thick gravel bases or stabilization of

3024-544: The 20th century, though Western and Eastern Avenues in London are main traffic arteries out of the city, if not very straight. In cities which have a grid-based naming system , such as the borough of Manhattan in New York City , there may be a convention that the streets called avenues run parallel in one direction – roughly north–south in the case of Manhattan – while "streets" run at 90 degrees to them across

3108-458: The American antebellum era South , the southern live oak was typically used, because the trees created a beautiful shade canopy . Sometimes tree avenues were designed to direct the eye toward some distinctive architectural building or feature, such as a chapels , gazebos , or architectural follies . Avenue as a street name in French, Spanish ( avenida ) and other languages implies

3192-695: The avenue's propensity to draw the spectator forwards along it. In Austria-Hungary , the fashion for establishing representative avenues appeared as early as the Renaissance and reached its peak in the Baroque period. Avenues lined the access roads to chateaus and manors, as well as pilgrimage routes and Stations of the Cross. The manorial landscape architecture was followed by "folk landscaping" with wayside chapels, crosses and shrines accompanied by trees. Later, Maria Theresa decreed in 1752 to plant trees along

3276-539: The avenues; roughly east–west in Manhattan. In Washington, DC the avenues radiate from the centre running diagonally across the grid of streets, which follows typical French usage of the name (in France " boulevards " are often main roads running round the city centre). In Phoenix, Arizona , "the avenues" can colloquially mean "the west side of town", due to the numbered north–south-running roads being called "Avenues" in

3360-698: The beginning of the 20th century and are of two types: metalled (hard-surfaced) and unmetalled roads. Metalled roadways are made to sustain vehicular load and so are usually made on frequently used roads. Unmetalled roads, also known as gravel roads or dirt roads, are rough and can sustain less weight. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic . Today, permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways and walkways to prevent flooding. Pavements are crucial to countries such as United States and Canada , which heavily depend on road transportation. Therefore, research projects such as Long-Term Pavement Performance have been launched to optimize

3444-552: The broken stone or cinders used in the construction or repair of roads or railways , and is derived from the Latin metallum , which means both " mine " and " quarry ". The term originally referred to the process of creating a gravel roadway. The route of the roadway would first be dug down several feet and, depending on local conditions, French drains may or may not have been added. Next, large stones were placed and compacted, followed by successive layers of smaller stones, until

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3528-461: The centre, allowing drainage to take place, a major improvement on the work of Trésaguet. The surface of his roads consisted of broken stone. McAdam developed an inexpensive paving material of soil and stone aggregate (known as macadam ). His road building method was simpler than Telford's, yet more effective at protecting roadways: he discovered that massive foundations of rock upon rock were unnecessary, and asserted that native soil alone would support

3612-475: The concept of trunk roads ( Fernstraßen ), whose importance was based both on the comfort of individual road users and for reasons of national interest. In Prussia , for example, the construction of chaussees , especially after the Stein-Hardenberg reforms (1807) certainly served military purposes. This created a basis for improving the flow of trade during the early industrial period , even before

3696-723: The context of British archaeology . In French formal garden Baroque landscape design style, avenues of trees that were centered upon the dwelling radiated across the landscape. See the avenues in the Gardens of Versailles or Het Loo . Other late 17th-century French and Dutch landscapes, in that intensely ordered and flat terrain, fell naturally into avenues; Meindert Hobbema , in The Avenue at Middelharnis (1689) presents such an avenue in farming country, neatly flanked at regular intervals by rows of young trees that have been rigorously limbed up; his central vanishing point mimics

3780-417: The cost of their removal at the time of renovation would not significantly benefit the durabilty and longevity of the newer surface. There are ways to create the appearance of brick pavement, without the expense of actual bricks. The first method to create brick texture is to heat an asphalt pavement and use metal wires to imprint a brick pattern using a compactor to create stamped asphalt . A similar method

3864-440: The damage done. Passenger cars are considered to have little practical effect on a pavement's service life, from a materials fatigue perspective. Other failure modes include aging and surface abrasion. As years go by, the binder in a bituminous wearing course gets stiffer and less flexible. When it gets "old" enough, the surface will start losing aggregates, and macrotexture depth increases dramatically. If no maintenance action

3948-444: The economics of concrete paving so that a well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be cheaper in initial cost and significantly cheaper over the life cycle. Another important advantage is that waterproof concrete can be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains next to the road and reduces the need for a slightly sloped driveway to drain rainwater. Avoiding rainwater discharge by using runoff also means less electricity

4032-574: The first road was built in the chaussee design between Öttingen and Nördlingen in 1753. After the Napoleonic Wars , during which the importance of well constructed roads became recognised - for military logistical and strategic reasons - not least because of the use made by the French of forced marches (up to then war strategy was based primarily on the garrison concept, i.e. the stationing of non-mobile troops), but also express mail services developed, thinking moved increasingly towards

4116-583: The footpath, etc. The chaussee was also, important for urban development . With the advent of the chaussee , the concept was born of a major road running right to the gates of a town or city. And with the demolition of fortifications in the Gründerzeit period of the late 19th century, the avenue and boulevard appeared in the form of urban axes or ring roads as access roads to the chaussee . Contemporary: Road metal A road surface ( British English ) or pavement ( North American English )

4200-424: The higher cost of bitumen. Concrete pavement can be maintained over time utilizing a series of methods known as concrete pavement restoration which include diamond grinding , dowel bar retrofits , joint and crack sealing, cross-stitching, etc. Diamond grinding is also useful in reducing noise and restoring skid resistance in older concrete pavement. The first street in the United States to be paved with concrete

4284-468: The joints between the underlying concrete slabs, whether from thermal expansion and contraction, or from deflection of the concrete slabs from truck axle loads , usually causes reflective cracks in the asphalt. To decrease reflective cracking, concrete pavement is broken apart through a break and seat, crack and seat , or rubblization process. Geosynthetics can be used for reflective crack control. With break and seat and crack and seat processes,

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4368-500: The life cycle of different road surfaces. Pavement , in construction, is an outdoor floor or superficial surface covering. Paving materials include asphalt , concrete , stones such as flagstone , cobblestone , and setts , artificial stone , bricks , tiles , and sometimes wood. In landscape architecture , pavements are part of the hardscape and are used on sidewalks , road surfaces , patios , courtyards , etc. The term pavement comes from Latin pavimentum , meaning

4452-473: The life of the road at low cost. In areas with cold climate, studded tires may be allowed on passenger cars. In Sweden and Finland, studded passenger car tires account for a very large share of pavement rutting . The physical properties of a stretch of pavement can be tested using a falling weight deflectometer . Several design methods have been developed to determine the thickness and composition of road surfaces required to carry predicted traffic loads for

4536-447: The loudest, and concrete surfaces without spacers being the quietest. Asphaltic surfaces perform intermediately relative to concrete and chip seal . Rubberized asphalt has been shown to give a 3–5 dB reduction in tire-pavement noise emissions, and a marginally discernible 1–3 dB reduction in total road noise emissions when compared to conventional asphalt applications. As pavement systems primarily fail due to fatigue (in

4620-528: The main, the French word entered the German language as a loanword . Today many road names end in -chaussee . Hamburg has retained the term in its street names ( Elbchaussee , Eimsbüttler Chaussee etc.), Berlin likewise ( Potsdamer Chaussee , Johannisthaler Chaussee ), whilst in Bremen in 1914, the chaussees were renamed, following a decision by its citizens, as Heerstraßen (literally 'military roads'). In Aachen and Münster

4704-475: The major advantages of concrete pavements is they are typically stronger and more durable than asphalt roadways. The surface can be grooved to provide a durable skid-resistant surface. Concrete roads are more economical to drive in terms of fuel consumption, they reflect light better, and they last significantly longer than other paving surfaces; but they have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern paving methods and design methods have changed

4788-420: The middle of the 19th century, when the construction of imperial roads continued, but at the same time a network of non-state side roads was created, the law ordered the planting of avenues along them, especially fruit trees and mulberries. Many baroque alleys have aged and been felled, and fruit tree alleys have become increasingly popular. At the time of the development of motoring, the oldest avenues often hinder

4872-442: The new imperial roads for economic, aesthetic, orientation and safety reasons. Most avenues were created during the reigns of Maria Theresa and Joseph II. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, new landscaping came from England, and formal aesthetics were replaced by the aesthetics of the natural landscape. During Napoleonic wars, pyramidal poplars became a new element, popular due to their fast growth and distinctive shape. Also in

4956-523: The non-homogeneous expansion and contraction with non-rubber components. The application of rubberized asphalt is more temperature-sensitive and in many locations can only be applied at certain times of the year. Study results of the long-term acoustic benefits of rubberized asphalt are inconclusive. Initial application of rubberized asphalt may provide a reduction of 3–5 decibels (dB) in tire-pavement-source noise emissions; however, this translates to only 1–3 dB in total traffic-noise reduction when combined with

5040-487: The north of England, from 1765, when Parliament passed an act authorising the creation of turnpike trusts to build toll funded roads in the Knaresborough area. Pierre-Marie-Jérôme Trésaguet is widely credited with establishing the first scientific approach to road building in France at the same time as Metcalf. He wrote a memorandum on his method in 1775, which became general practice in France. It involved

5124-407: The number of fieldstone erratics on and alongside the fields. In addition to its paved surface, the chaussee was characterised by a fully developed drainage system. The porous base course and gentle camber of the road surface assisted drainage, for which associated ditches ( Chausseegraben ) were dug alongside the road. Often the chaussee comprised a stone carriageway ( Steinbahn ) and

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5208-498: The other components of traffic noise. Compared to traditional passive attenuating measures (e.g., noise walls and earth berms), rubberized asphalt provides shorter-lasting and lesser acoustic benefits at typically much greater expense. Concrete surfaces (specifically, Portland cement concrete) are created using a concrete mix of Portland cement, coarse aggregate , sand , and water. In virtually all modern mixes there will also be various admixtures added to increase workability, reduce

5292-430: The overlying asphalt pavement. "Rubblization" is a more complete fracturing of the old, worn-out concrete, effectively converting the old pavement into an aggregate base for a new asphalt road. The whitetopping process uses Portland cement concrete to resurface a distressed asphalt road. Distressed pavement can be reused when rehabilitating a roadway. The existing pavement is broken up and may be ground on-site through

5376-626: The pavements subbase and subgrade . Wheeled transport created the need for better roads. Generally, natural materials cannot be both soft enough to form well-graded surfaces and strong enough to bear wheeled vehicles, especially when wet, and stay intact. In urban areas it began to be worthwhile to build stone-paved streets and, in fact, the first paved streets appear to have been built in Ur in 4000 BC. Corduroy roads were built in Glastonbury , England in 3300 BC, and brick-paved roads were built in

5460-403: The required amount of water, mitigate harmful chemical reactions, and for other beneficial purposes. In many cases there will also be Portland cement substitutes added, such as fly ash . This can reduce the cost of the concrete and improve its physical properties. The material is applied in a freshly mixed slurry and worked mechanically to compact the interior and force some of the cement slurry to

5544-430: The road and traffic upon it, as long as it was covered by a road crust that would protect the soil underneath from water and wear. Size of stones was central to McAdam's road building theory. The lower 200-millimetre (7.9 in) road thickness was restricted to stones no larger than 75 millimetres (3.0 in). Modern tarmac was patented by British civil engineer Edgar Purnell Hooley , who noticed that spilled tar on

5628-572: The road surface was composed of small stones compacted into a hard, durable surface. "Road metal" later became the name of stone chippings mixed with tar to form the road-surfacing material tarmac . A road of such material is called a " metalled road " in Britain, a " paved road " in Canada and the US, or a " sealed road " in parts of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. A granular surface can be used with

5712-401: The roadmender. The watchmen reported to a chaussee engineer ( Chausseebaumeister ) who was the road construction inspector ( Wegebauinspektor ) responsible for the road. As a result of the chaussee , road engineering standards and the road traffic regulations were also given impetus. Pierer pointed out in 1860: chaussee regulations, which usually specify the weight that a carter can load,

5796-525: The roadway kept the dust down and created a smooth surface. He took out a patent in 1901 for tarmac. Hooley's 1901 patent for tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, and then compacting the mixture with a steamroller . The tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement , resin , and pitch . Asphalt (specifically, asphalt concrete ), sometimes called flexible pavement since its viscosity causes minute deformations as it distributes loads, has been widely used since

5880-407: The roughness and loose stone associated with chip seals is considered undesirable. A thin membrane surface (TMS) is an oil -treated aggregate which is laid down upon a gravel road bed, producing a dust-free road. A TMS road reduces mud problems and provides stone-free roads for local residents where loaded truck traffic is negligible. The TMS layer adds no significant structural strength, and so

5964-415: The subgrade with Portland cement or lime may be required. Polypropylene and polyester geosynthetics are also used for this purpose, and in some northern countries a layer of polystyrene boards are used to delay and minimize frost penetration into the subgrade. Depending on the temperature at which it is applied, asphalt is categorized as hot mix, warm mix, half warm mix, or cold mix. Hot mix asphalt

6048-423: The surface to produce a smoother, denser surface free from honeycombing. The water allows the mix to combine molecularly in a chemical reaction called hydration . Concrete surfaces have been classified into three common types: jointed plain (JPCP), jointed reinforced (JRCP) and continuously reinforced (CRCP). The one item that distinguishes each type is the jointing system used to control crack development. One of

6132-465: The tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather, and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways . In the mid-1960s, rubberized asphalt was used for the first time, mixing crumb rubber from used tires with asphalt. While a potential use for tires that would otherwise fill landfills and present a fire hazard, rubberized asphalt has shown greater incidence of wear in freeze-thaw cycles in temperate zones because of

6216-502: The term Steinweg ('stone way') is used instead. This also occurs in Flemish as steenweg . Chaussees or Kunststraßen were extra-urban roads that were constructed with a solid pavement; they were designed by engineers and were therefore much straighter. They differed from ordinary country roads in that, in addition to the pavement , the embankment and subgrade , or road bed, were also artificially constructed. Adelung explained

6300-581: The term as an artificially raised way made of gravel or crushed stone, such a road being distinguished from a Damme which is paved with cobblestones. The concept of chaussees was developed in the Netherlands in the 18th century using brick to reinforce the man-made road embankments. It was followed later in England – as "macadamised causeways" (German: Chausseen mit Makadam ) by road builder, John Loudon McAdam (born 1756) using gravel paving -

6384-503: The water would flow out from between the stones and fragments of rubble, instead of becoming mud in clay soils. Although there were attempts to rediscover Roman methods, there was little useful innovation in road building before the 18th century. The first professional road builder to emerge during the Industrial Revolution was John Metcalf , who constructed about 290 kilometres (180 mi) of turnpike road , mainly in

6468-830: The western part of the city, separated from the eastern "Streets" by a "Central Avenue". Similarly, "the avenues" in San Francisco, California refers to the Richmond District and the Sunset District , the two neighborhoods on the Pacific coast, north and south of Golden Gate Park , respectively. In Anglophone urban or suburban settings, "avenue" is one of the usual suite of words used in street names, along with "boulevard", "circle", "court", "drive", "lane", "place", "road", "street", "terrace", "way", "gate" and so on, any of which may carry connotations as to

6552-504: The wheel gauge that a cart must have, specify the width of the wheel rims (the 6 inch rims pay either no, or very little, toll money, because they use the chaussee ; in other countries narrow rims for goods carts are prohibited), prohibit the blocking of places where it is not absolutely necessary, forbid blocking the track, specify which side of the road to pass (mostly on the right, but on the left in Austria), determine fines for driving on

6636-448: The widening and modernization of rural roads and are the subject of dispute between conservationists and traffic safety requirements. To enhance the approach to mansions or manor houses , avenues were planted along the entrance drive. Sometimes the avenues are in double rows on each side of a road. Trees preferred for avenues were selected for their height and speed of growth, such as poplar , beech , lime , and horse chestnut . In

6720-434: The word were Straßendamm ('road embankment') and Hochweg ('high way') and even the roughly similar English word, highway . Around 1790, Adelung complained that "several new authors have proposed German names" but these expressions "do not capture the concept either, and may be used for every other type of artificial way [ Kunststraße ]". The word Kunststraße ('artificial road') then established itself but, in

6804-561: The world, but fell out of fashion in most countries, due to the high cost of labor required to lay and maintain them, and are typically only kept for historical or aesthetic reasons. In some countries, however, they are still common in local streets. In the Netherlands , brick paving has made something of a comeback since the adoption of a major nationwide traffic safety program in 1997. From 1998 through 2007, more than 41,000 km of city streets were converted to local access roads with

6888-732: Was Court Avenue in Bellefontaine, Ohio in 1893. The first mile of concrete pavement in the United States was on Woodward Avenue in Detroit, Michigan in 1909. Following these pioneering uses, the Lincoln Highway Association , established in October 1913 to oversee the creation of one of the United States' earliest east-west transcontinental highways for the automobile, began to establish "seedling miles" of specifically concrete-paved roadbed in various places in

6972-478: Was adopted by AASHTO in 2008, although MEPDG implementation by state departments of transportation has been slow. Further research by University College London into pavements has led to the development of an indoor, 80-sq-metre artificial pavement at a research centre called Pedestrian Accessibility and Movement Environment Laboratory (PAMELA). It is used to simulate everyday scenarios, from different pavement users to varying pavement conditions. There also exists

7056-649: Was further developed in France, and from there arrived in the German-speaking region as a result of the French occupation of Prussia under Napoleon I (1807-1813). During the establishment of the Military Frontier in the Banat region of Austria-Hungary , where there was a lack of rock, the Dutch brick road method was used. The building of chaussees in North Germany resulted in a significant reduction in

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