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38-632: According to Bernal Díaz del Castillo , Chichimecatecuhtli and Xicotencatl the Younger commanded the 50,000 Tlaxcaltec warriors who stopped the Spaniards and their Totonac allies before arriving to Tlaxcala in September 1519, believing them to be vassals to the Aztec Empire . He was in charge of a fifth of the contingent, which hailed from Huejotzingo , while the rest belonged to Xicohtencatl

76-684: A group of about 110 disaffected soldiers and settlers to "discover new lands". They chose Francisco Hernández de Córdoba , a wealthy landowner, to lead the expedition. It was a difficult venture and, after sailing from Cuba for 21 days, they came across the Yucatán coast in early March 1517, on the Cape Catoche. On March 4, 1517, the Spanish had their first encounter with the Yucatán natives who came to meet them on five or perhaps 10, depending on

114-506: A reward for his service, Díaz was awarded an encomienda by Cortés in 1522. That was confirmed and supplemented by similar awards in 1527 and 1528. In 1541, he settled in Guatemala and, during the course of a trip to Spain, was appointed regidor (governor) of Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala , present-day Antigua Guatemala , in 1551. Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España , finished in 1568, almost fifty years after

152-461: A soldier in the conquest of the Aztec Empire under Hernán Cortés and late in his life wrote an account of the events. As an experienced soldier of fortune, he had already participated in expeditions to Tierra Firme , Cuba, and to Yucatán before joining Cortés. In his later years, Castillo was an encomendero and governor in Guatemala where he wrote his memoirs called The True History of

190-638: A subsequent brawl in the senate and only escaped being executed due to the Elder's intervention. After Maxixcatzin's death and the solidifcation of the Hispano-Tlaxcaltec counterattack against the Aztecs, Chichimecatecuhtli was appointed supreme general of Tlaxcala and joined Cortés with 10,000 warriors to conquer Tetzcoco , which would use as a naval base in the eponymous lake . Along with two captains Díaz calls Teulepile and Tiutical, he later escorted

228-433: A well on the beach, the Spaniards were attacked by locals. During this fracas, one Spaniard was captured by the native Floridians while the Spanish killed 22 natives. The Spanish managed to make a retreat but were unable to gather water. They returned to Cuba , all of them severely wounded. The captain, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, and other soldiers died shortly after making it back to Cuba. Nevertheless, Díaz returned to

266-578: Is a chapter (212), which some consider apocryphal with signs and portents of the conquest and omitted from later editions. Province of Tierra Firme During Spain's New World Empire , its mainland coastal possessions surrounding the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico were referred to collectively as the Spanish Main . The southern portion of these coastal possessions were known as

304-690: Is overthrown and lost." Bernal Díaz died in January 1584. He was alive on January 1, but on January 3, his son, Francisco, appeared before the Cabildo of Guatemala and informed them that his father had died. Miguel León-Portilla accepts this date in his Introduction (dated July 1984 " a cuatro siglos de la muerte de Bernal ") to the anthology of extended excerpts from the Historia verdadera . Alicia Mayer (2005) praised that edition, its selection, and León-Portilla's introduction, saying they remained, down to

342-480: The Honduras . In 1509, authority was granted to Alonso de Ojeda and Diego de Nicuesa to colonize the territories between the west side of the Gulf of Urabá and Cabo de la Vela , and Urabá westward to Cabo Gracias a Dios in present-day Honduras . The westernmost portion was given the name Tierra Firme . Other provinces of this region during this era were Nueva Andalucia and Veragua or Castilla del Oro ;

380-577: The Province of Tierra Firme ( Spanish : Provincia de Tierra Firme ), or the "Mainland Province" (as contrasted with Spain's nearby insular colonies ). The Province of Tierra Firme, or simply Tierra Firme , was also called Costa Firme . In 1498, Cristopher Columbus entered the Gulf of Paria in Venezuela and explored the Orinoco River . In his fourth and last voyage, he also explored

418-543: The Aztecs. Cortés was warned and sent envoys for the Younger, but when he refused to return, and under his own father's verdict, he was executed. Meanwhile, Chichimecatecuhtli remained a staunch supporter of the Spaniards even after most of the Indian allies withdrew due to a purported prophecy of Aztec victory, with only he, Ixtlilxochitl II and two other sons of Xicotencatl the Elder with their bodyguards remaining. con sus guardias personales. The allies eventually returned after

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456-654: The Central American states gained independence, the precise frontiers were unclear. For example, some ancient maps and historical references suggest that the entire Caribbean coast as far as Cabo Gracias a Dios was part Tierra Firme or Castilla Del Oro . On the other hand, this would embrace populated regions of the Mosquito Coast that were never under the effective rule of Tierra Firme. Disputes over both of Panama's frontiers were finally solved by agreements with Costa Rica and Colombia, respectively. After

494-463: The Conquest of New Spain . He began his account of the conquest almost thirty years after the events and later revised and expanded it in response to Cortés’ letters to the king, which Castillo viewed as Cortés taking most of the credit for himself while minimizing the efforts and sacrifices of the other Spaniards and their indigenous allies during the expedition. In addition to this, Castillo disputed

532-424: The Elder from Tizatlan , Maxixcatzin from Ocotelolco , Tlahuexolotzin from Tepeticpac and Tecapacaneca de Tepeyanco . The second day of the battle, due to their little success against the Spanish army despite their immense numbers advantage, Xicotencatl the Younger and a captain son to Chichimecatecuhtli accused each other of incompetence, causing a loss of authority for the former and the withdrawal in protest of

570-567: The Mexica along with that of Cortés are first-person accounts recording important aspects of Mesoamerican culture. Similarly, the men's accounts provide incredible detail into the actions of the Spaniards during their invasion of the Moctezuma II -led Aztecs, creating controversy surrounding the aggression and force used by Cortés' army. Bernal Díaz's account has not yet been fully utilized as a source for conquest-era Mesoamerican culture . As

608-631: The Spanish overthrow of the Aztecs and are thus considered a valuable historical artifact. Attempting to explain the intentions and motivations of the Spaniards who arrived in Mexico, Castillo summarized it thusly: “We came to serve God and to get rich, as all men wish to do.” Bernal Díaz was born around the year 1492 in Medina del Campo , a prosperous commercial city in Castile . His parents were Francisco Díaz del Castillo and María Díez Rejón. His father

646-430: The basis for the recollections that Bernal Díaz later told with great drama to visitors and, eventually, a book entitled Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España (English: The True History of the Conquest of New Spain ). In the latter, Díaz describes many of the 119 battles in which he participated in, culminating in the defeat of the Aztecs in 1521. This work describes the diverse native peoples living in

684-530: The biography published by Cortés' chaplain Francisco López de Gómara , which he considered to be largely inaccurate in that it also excessively glorified Cortés at the expense of the other soldiers. Castillo also took issue with the historical account published by the monk Bernardino de Sahagún , which he found to be overly sympathetic to the indigenous Americans , the Aztecs in particular. Like many of

722-445: The campaign. Bernal Díaz also used the publication of Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda on just war , which allowed Bernal Díaz to cast the conquest of Mexico as a just conquest. Despite this, Castillo apparently was remorseful over the destruction of Tenochtitlan, writing in his History, "When I beheld the scenes around me, I thought within myself, this was the garden of the world. All of the wonders I beheld that day, nothing now remains. All

760-529: The coast of Yucatán in April 1518, in an expedition led by Juan de Grijalva , with the intent of exploring the lands. Upon returning to Cuba, he enlisted in a new expedition, this one led by Hernán Cortés . In this third effort, Díaz took part in the campaigns against the Mexica, later called the Aztec Empire . During this campaign, Díaz spoke frequently with his fellow soldiers about their experiences. These accounts, and especially Díaz's own experiences, served as

798-490: The conquest of the Mexica. Bernal Díaz's manuscript was expanded in response to what he later found in the official biography of Hernán Cortés commissioned by Cortés's heir, Don Martín Cortés, published in 1552 by Francisco López de Gómara . The title Historia verdadera (True History) is in part a response to the claims made by Hernán Cortés in his published letters to the king, López de Gómara, Bartolomé de las Casas, Gonzalo de Illescas and others who had not participated in

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836-664: The conquistadors who participated in the Spanish colonization of the Americas , Castillo was discontent that he did not achieve the great wealth he had hoped for and felt the Spanish government had failed to acknowledge his efforts and had cheated him. Having completed his memoirs, Castillo died in Guatemala at the age of 92. Though written decades after the events described, and containing numerous inaccuracies and biases, Castillo’s memoirs remain only one of two first-hand accounts of

874-433: The date of her review, " fuente imprescindible de consulta " (an indispensable source to consult) without seeing his manuscript published. An expanded and corrected copy of the manuscript kept in Guatemala was sent to Spain and published, with revisions, in 1632. The manuscript was edited by Fray Alonso de Remón and Fray Gabriel Adarzo y Santander prior to publication. In this first published edition of Bernal Díaz's work, there

912-559: The events it described, was begun around the same time as his appointment as regidor and was well in progress by the mid-1550s when he wrote to the Holy Roman Emperor (and king of Spain), Charles V, describing his services and seeking benefits. That was a standard action of conquerors to document their services to the crown and requests for rewards. Bernal Díaz de Castillo sent his True History to Philip II of Spain in 1579, according to Juan Rodriguez Cabrillo de Medrano , son of

950-458: The famous maritime explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo . Some version of his account circulated in Mexico in the 1560s and 1570s, prior to its seventeenth-century publication. Bernal Díaz's account is mentioned by Alonso de Zorita, a royal official who wrote an account of indigenous society, and mestizo Diego Muñoz Camargo , who wrote a full-length account of the Tlaxcalans' participation in

988-520: The latter. After the lords of Tlaxcala accepted the peace offered by Cortés, Chichimecatecuhtli accompanied them to meet the conquistador. After the Sad Night in July 1520, Chichimecatecuthli was again among the lords of Tlaxcala when they received Cortés after his disastrous escape from Tenochtitlan , the capital of the Aztec Empire. Inner turmoil burst when Xicotencatl the Younger called for wiping out

1026-784: The main city in Tierra Firme was Santa Maria La Antigua del Darién, now Darién, Panama , near the mouth of the Tarena river. The idea was to create a unitary administrative organization similar to Nueva España (now Mexico), near the Captaincy General of Guatemala . Tierra Firme later received control over other territories: the Isla de Santiago (now Jamaica ) the Cayman Islands ; Roncador , Quitasueño , and Providencia and other islands now under Colombian control; and

1064-466: The princess Tolquequetzaltzin. Chichimecatecuthli later served as a Cortés' second in command during the conquest of Xaltocan , and joined his circle during the siege of Tenochtitlan . His enemy Xicotencatl the Younger had been rehabilitated as a fellow captain of the forces, but he fled in order to stage a coup of Tlaxcala and capture Chichimecatecuhtli's lands behind his back, hoping to muster enough strength to change Tlaxcala's allegiance from Cortés to

1102-415: The prophecy proved false, brought by Tecapaneca. After the total victory over Tenochtitlan, Chichimecatecuhtli and the rest of native captain returned to their lands with large amounts of cured human meat from their Aztec enemies to eat in their feasts. Bernal D%C3%ADaz del Castillo Bernal Díaz del Castillo ( c.  1492 – 3 February 1584) was a Spanish conquistador who participated as

1140-473: The remaining Spaniards in exchange for peace with the new Aztec emperor Cuitlahuac , an idea plainly rejected by his father and the rest of the lords. Chichimecatecuhtli, still a political enemy of the youngster, discovered Xicotencatl's intention to carry on his plans and had him arrested and brought to the Tlaxcaltec senate. Xicotencatl tried to convince his father and the rest, for which he was attacked in

1178-458: The settlers. Many of the colonists grew discouraged and looked elsewhere for new opportunities; some returned to Spain while others sailed to Hispaniola or Cuba. In 1516, Diaz sailed to Cuba with about 100 other soldiers looking for a share of the gold and native laborers that were said to be found on the island. They discovered that gold was scarce and the native labor was in short supply, leading Díaz, in 1517, to join an expedition organized by

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1216-541: The territorial division of South America between Spain and Portugal , the Peruvian Hispanic administration was divided into six entities: This territorial division set the basis for the Hispanic administration of South America for several decades. It was formally dissolved in 1544, when King Charles I sent his personal envoy, Blasco Núñez Vela , to govern the newly founded Viceroyalty of Peru that replaced

1254-625: The territories of present-day Costa Rica and Nicaragua as far as Cabo Gracias a Dios. The eastern frontier of Tierra Firme also included the east side of the Gulf of Darién or Urabá , the east side of the Atrato and Truando rivers, ending in Cabo Marzo on the Pacific side. Between these limits lie Santa Maria La Antigua Del Darien on the Gulf of Urabá and Jurado on the Pacific side. When

1292-441: The territory renamed New Spain by the Spaniards. Bernal Díaz also examines the political rivalries of Spaniards, and gives accounts of the natives' human sacrifices, cannibalism and idolatry, which he claims he witnessed first-hand, as well as the artistic, cultural, political and intellectual achievements of the Aztecs , including their palaces, market places and beautifully organized botanical and zoological gardens. His account of

1330-481: The version/translation of his work, large wooden canoes. The next day, the Spaniards disembarked, invited by the natives who wanted to show them their village. They were ambushed but managed to retreat, after killing 15 locals and having 15 wounded, 2 of whom later died. Upon leaving, the Spaniards captured 2 natives who would be translators in future expeditions. The Spanish almost died of thirst and sailed to Florida in search of potable drinking water. As they were digging

1368-464: The workers who brought wood to build Spanish brigantines . Chichimecatecuthli expressed his irritation at being ordered to guard the convoy's rear guard, but he changed his mind upon learning Aztecs most often targeted that part, and also after he would have the chance to fight alongside Gonzalo de Sandoval , one of Cortés' lieutenants, who was popular among the Tlaxcaltecs due to his marriage with

1406-634: Was a regidor (city councilor) of Medina del Campo which provided the family with some prominence. Díaz had at least one older brother and they attended school together, learning to read and write. Bernal Diaz was intelligent and later showed a knack for languages, learning to speak the Taíno language in Cuba, Nahuatl in Mexico, and the Cakchiquel language of the Guatemalan natives. In 1514, when Díaz

1444-470: Was about eighteen years old, he left home to join an expedition to the New World led by Pedrarias Dávila . It was the largest fleet yet sent to mainland America, consisting of 19 vessels and 1,500 persons. Díaz served as a common foot soldier and hoped to make his fortune but when they reached Darien in present-day Colombia, they were quickly overcome by famine and an epidemic that killed more than half of

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