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155-589: Moctezuma Xocoyotzin ( c.  1466 – 29 June 1520), referred to retroactively in European sources as Moctezuma II , was the ninth Emperor of the Aztec Empire (also known as the Mexica Empire ), reigning from 1502 or 1503 to 1520. Through his marriage with Queen Tlapalizquixochtzin of Ecatepec , one of his two wives, he was also king consort of that altepetl . The first contact between

310-522: A cuicacalli , for public shows during religious rituals. The bottom floor had two rooms which were used by the government. One of them was used for Moctezuma's advisors and judges who dealt with the situations of the commoners (likely the Tlacxitlan ). The other room was for the war council (likely the Tequihuacalli ), where high-ranking warriors planned and commanded their battles. As part of

465-580: A speech scroll . The Aztecs did not use regnal numbers ; they were given retroactively by historians to more easily distinguish him from the first Moctezuma, referred to as Moctezuma I . The Aztec chronicles called him Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin , while the first was called Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina or Huehuemotecuhzoma ('Old Moctezuma'). Xocoyotzin ( IPA: [ʃoːkoˈjoːt͡sin̥] ) means 'honored young one' (from xocoyotl 'younger son' + suffix -tzin added to nouns or personal names when speaking about them with deference). Moctezuma II

620-689: A tecpan (palace) of his own. This was a particularly large palace, which was somewhat larger than the National Palace that exists today which was built over it, being about 200 meters long and 200 meters wide. However, little archaeological evidence exists to understand what his palace looked like, but the various descriptions of it and the space it covered have helped reconstruct various features of its layout. Even so, these descriptions tend to be limited, as many writers were unable to describe them in detail. The Spanish captain Hernán Cortés ,

775-430: A contemporary source. King Sancho III of Navarre conquered Leon in 1034 and began using it. His son, Ferdinand I of Castile also took the title in 1039. Ferdinand's son, Alfonso VI of León and Castile took the title in 1077. It then passed to his son-in-law, Alfonso I of Aragon in 1109. His stepson and Alfonso VI's grandson, Alfonso VII was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in 1135. The title

930-478: A dynastic succession started when the title Empress of India was created for Queen Victoria . The government led by Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli , conferred the additional title upon her by an Act of Parliament, reputedly to assuage the monarch's irritation at being, as a mere Queen, notionally inferior to the emperors of Russia, Germany, and Austria. That included her own daughter ( Princess Victoria , who

1085-455: A humiliating defeat at Atlixco during a flower war against Huejotzingo ( see below ), many sites in Oaxaca rebelled, likely under the idea that the empire's forces were weakened. However, Moctezuma was able to raise an army numbering 200,000 and marched over the city of Yancuitlan (today known as Yanhuitlan ), a city which had been previously conquered by Tizoc , and conquered Zozollan in

1240-519: A king might be obliged to pay tribute to another ruler, or be restrained in his actions in some unequal fashion, but an emperor should in theory be completely free of such restraints. However, monarchs heading empires have not always used the title in all contexts—the British sovereign did not assume the title Empress of the British Empire even during the incorporation of India , though she

1395-403: A long conflict of interests between the nobility, merchants, and warrior class. The struggle occurred as the result of the conflicting interests between the merchants and the nobility and the rivalry between the warrior class and the nobility for positions of power in the government. Moctezuma likely sought to resolve this conflict by installing despotist policies that would settle it. However, it

1550-493: A potential threat to the government; among these policies was the obligation of the nobility to reside permanently in Tenochtitlan and abandon their homes if they lived elsewhere. Regarding his economic policies, Moctezuma's rule was largely affected by natural disasters in the early years. As mentioned before, the famine during his first years as tlatoani resulted in a temporary increase in tribute in some provinces to aid

1705-416: A result of astrological predictions halting some Mexica military operations to a degree. Moctezuma would try to campaign against these rebellions one at a time throughout the following years, campaigning against territories in Oaxaca, including Icpatepec again, in 1511 or 1512. Some of these revolts occurred as far south as Xoconochco (today known as Soconusco ) and Huiztlan (today, Huixtla ), far down where

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1860-536: A throne, his youth was not marked by princely luxury. His father had set Texcoco against the powerful city of Azcapotzalco , ruled by the Tepanec . In 1418, when the young prince was fifteen, his father was assassinated. The Tepanecs of Azcapotzalco, led by Tezozomoc , conquered Texcoco, and Acolmiztli had to flee into exile in Huexotzinco. After various adventures, during which he took the name Nezahualcoyotl,

2015-457: A tribute to Tenochtitlan, and they received multiple rewards as the result, including the permission to rebuild their main temple (which had been partially destroyed during the Battle of Tlatelolco which occurred during Axayacatl 's reign). This campaign had a highly violent result; Moctezuma, after receiving information on the cities gathered by his spies, ordered for all adults in the sites above

2170-429: A tyrant who wanted to take absolute control over the whole empire. Accounts of how he died and who were the perpetrators (Spaniards or natives) differ. His story remains one of the most well-known conquest narratives from the history of European contact with Native Americans, and he has been mentioned or portrayed in numerous works of historical fiction and popular culture. The Classical Nahuatl pronunciation of his name

2325-410: A very sudden interruption upon the news of the arrival of Spanish ships in the east in 1519 ( see below ). Emperor The word emperor (from Latin : imperator , via Old French : empereor ) can mean the male ruler of an empire . Empress , the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort ), mother/grandmother ( empress dowager / grand empress dowager ), or

2480-485: A war against Icpatepec is recorded to have happened again in that year. After the campaigns in the Oaxaca region, Moctezuma began to move his campaigns into northern and eastern territories around 1514, conquering the site of Quetzalapan, a Chichimec territory through the Huastec region , taking 1332 captives and suffering minimal casualties, with only 95 reported losses. Likely around this time, many other territories in

2635-531: A woman who rules in her own right and name ( empress regnant or suo jure ). Emperors are generally recognized to be of the highest monarchic honour and rank , surpassing kings . In Europe , the title of Emperor has been used since the Middle Ages , considered in those times equal or almost equal in dignity to that of Pope due to the latter's position as visible head of the Church and spiritual leader of

2790-483: Is [motɛːkʷˈs̻oːmaḁ] . It is a compound of a noun meaning 'lord' and a verb meaning 'to frown in anger', and so is interpreted as 'he frowns like a lord' or 'he who is angry in a noble manner'. His name glyph , shown in the upper left corner of the image from the Codex Mendoza below , was composed of a diadem ( xiuhuitzolli ) on straight hair with an attached earspool , a separate nosepiece, and

2945-437: Is also true that many of his elitist policies were put in place because he did not want to "work with inferior people", and instead wanted to be served by and interact with people he deemed more prestigious, both to avoid giving himself and the government a bad reputation and to work with people he trusted better. However, some of his policies also affected the nobility, as he had intentions of reforming it so that it would not pose

3100-833: Is best remembered for his poetry; for his Hamlet -like biography as a dethroned prince with a victorious return, leading to the fall of Azcapotzalco and the rise of the Aztec Triple Alliance ; and for leading important infrastructure projects, both in Texcoco and Tenochtitlan . According to accounts by his descendants and biographers, Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl and Juan Bautista Pomar , he had an experience of an "Unknown, Unknowable Lord of Everywhere" to whom he built an entirely empty temple in which no blood sacrifices of any kind were allowed — not even those of animals. However, he allowed human sacrifices to continue in other temples. The Nahuatl name Nezahualcoyotl

3255-416: Is commonly translated as “hungry coyote” or “fasting coyote.” However, more accurately, it means "coyote with a fasting collar," from nezahualli , a collar made out of bands of paper twisted together. It was worn by those fasting to show others that they shouldn't be offered food. Born Acolmiztli , he was the son of Ixtlilxochitl I and Matlalcihuatzin, the daughter of Huitzilihuitl . Though born heir to

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3410-555: Is credited with the compilation of a collection of Nahuatl poems, Romances de los señores de Nueva España , and with a chronicle of the history of the Aztecs . The freshwater fish Xiphophorus nezahualcoyotl is named after Nezahualcoyotl. Nezahualcoyotl appears on the current 100 peso banknote of Mexico. One of Nezahualcoyotl's historical legacies is as a poet, with a number of works in Classical Nahuatl written in

3565-619: Is known as the Dominate (284 AD – 527 AD), during which Emperor Diocletian tried to put the empire on a more formal footing. Diocletian sought to address the challenges of the Empire's now vast geography and the instability caused by the informality of succession by the creation of co-emperors and junior emperors. At one point, there were as many as five sharers of the imperium (see: Tetrarchy ). In 325 AD Constantine I defeated his rivals and restored single emperor rule, but following his death

3720-434: Is that contrary to popular belief, Tlaxcala was not Mexico's most powerful rival in the central Mexican region in this period, and it would not be so until the final years of pre-Hispanic Mexico in 1518–19. In the opening years of the 16th century, Huejotzingo was Mexico's actual military focus, and it proved itself to be one of the most powerful political entities until these final years, as a series of devastating wars weakened

3875-554: The tlatoani Itzcoatl of Tenochtitlan requested help from the Huexotzincans against the Tepanecs , Nezahualcoyotl envisioned a single military force in order to fight the mighty kingdom of Azcapotzalco . After being offered support from insurgents inside Acolhuacan and rebel Tepanecs from Coyohuacan , Nezahualcoyotl joined the war. He called for a coalition consisting of many of the most important pre-Hispanic cities of

4030-474: The tlatoani of this name ), were killed. All the population of Tototepec, except for the children, was massacred by the Mexica forces, and about 1350 captives were taken. Another campaign was launched in 1515 to conquer Acocozpan and Tetenanco and reconquer Atlitepec, which had been previously conquered by Ahuizotl in 1493. Quetzaltepec was conquered on the same campaign as Tototepec, as both reportedly murdered

4185-508: The Aztec Empire paid tribute that was distributed among three kings. Fourteen cities in the region of Acolhuacan were under Nezahualcoyotl, including Otompan , Huexotla , Coatlichan, Chimalhuacan , Tepetlaoztoc , Chiauhtla, Tezoyucan, Teotihuacan , Acolman , Tepechpan, Chiconauhtlan, Xicotepec , Cuauhchinanco, and Tulantzino. Nezahualcoyotl, himself half Mexica, adopted the Mexica religious and legal systems in Acolhuacan to help in

4340-569: The Byzantine Empire after Byzantium , the original name of the town that Constantine I would elevate to the Imperial capital as New Rome in AD 330. (The city is more commonly called Constantinople and is today named Istanbul ). Although the empire was again subdivided and a co-emperor sent to Italy at the end of the fourth century, the office became unitary again only 95 years later at

4495-591: The Chalco region, was assigned to pay an additional tribute of stone and wood twice or thrice a year for Tenochtitlan's building projects. This tributary policy eventually backfired, as some of the empire's subjects grew disgruntled with Moctezuma's government and launched rebellions against him, which eventually resulted in many of these provinces—including Totonacapan (under the de facto leadership of Chicomacatl ), Chalco and Mixquic (which were near Tenochtitlan)—forming alliances with Spain against him. The famine at

4650-684: The Despotate of Epirus . In 1248, Epirus recognized the Nicaean emperors, who subsequently recaptured Constantinople in 1261. The Trapezuntine emperor formally submitted in Constantinople in 1281, but frequently flouted convention by styling themselves emperor back in Trebizond thereafter. Byzantium 's close cultural and political interaction with its Balkan neighbors Bulgaria and Serbia , and with Russia (Kievan Rus', then Muscovy) led to

4805-539: The Eastern Roman Empire or (after the Battle of Yarmouk in 636 AD) the Later Roman or Byzantine Empire . The subdivisions and co-emperor system were formally abolished by Emperor Zeno in 480 AD following the death of Julius Nepos last Western Emperor and the ascension of Odoacer as the de facto King of Italy in 476 AD. Historians generally refer to the continuing Roman Empire in the east as

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4960-663: The Eastern Roman Empire . Their status was officially recognized by the Holy Roman Emperor in 1514, although not officially used by the Russian monarchs until 1547. However, the Russian emperors are better known by their Russian-language title of Tsar even after Peter the Great adopted the title of Emperor of All Russia in 1721. Historians have liberally used "emperor" and "empire" anachronistically and out of its Roman and European context to describe any large state from

5115-674: The German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles , to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later. After his death he was succeeded by his son Frederick III who was only emperor for 99 days. In the same year his son Wilhelm II became the third emperor within a year. He was

5270-517: The Isthmus of Tehuantepec , and incorporated the Zapotec and Yopi people into the empire. He changed the previous meritocratic system of social hierarchy and widened the divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from working in the royal palaces. Though two other Aztec rulers succeeded Moctezuma after his death, their reigns were short-lived and

5425-584: The Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen (Hungary) were given self-government in 1867, the non-Hungarian portions were called the Empire of Austria. They were officially known as the "Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council ( Reichsrat )". The title of Emperor of Austria and the associated Empire were both abolished at the end World War I in 1918, when German Austria became a republic and

5580-582: The Latin Empire of Constantinople , installing Baldwin IX , Count of Flanders , as Emperor. However, Byzantine resistance to the new empire meant that it was in constant struggle to establish itself. Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos succeeded in recapturing Constantinople in 1261. The Principality of Achaea , a vassal state the empire had created in Morea (Greece) intermittently continued to recognize

5735-734: The Ottoman Empire in 1908, its monarch, who was previously styled Knyaz , Prince , took the traditional title of Tsar , this time translated as King . Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha is the former Tsar Simeon II of Bulgaria. The kings of the Ancien Régime and the July Monarchy used the title Empereur de France in diplomatic correspondence and treaties with the Ottoman emperor from at least 1673 onwards. The Ottomans insisted on this elevated style while refusing to recognize

5890-695: The Patriarch of Constantinople and Imperial regent Nicholas Mystikos outside the Byzantine capital. In its final expanded form, under the Second Bulgarian Empire the title read "Emperor and Autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks" (Цар и самодържец на всички българи и гърци, Car i samodăržec na vsički bălgari i gărci in the modern vernacular). The Roman component in the Bulgarian imperial title indicated both rule over Greek speakers and

6045-765: The Second Mexican Empire (headed by his choice of Maximilian I of Mexico , a member of the House of Habsburg ), to regain France's hold in the Americas and to achieve greatness for the 'Latin' race. Napoleon III was deposed on 4 September 1870, after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War . The Third Republic followed and after the death of his son Napoleon (IV), in 1879 during the Zulu War,

6200-660: The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland , is according to English law an Empire ruled by a King endowed with the imperial dignity. However, this has not led to the creation of the title of Emperor in England, nor in Great Britain , nor in the United Kingdom. In 1801, George III rejected the title of Emperor when offered. The only period when British monarchs held the title of Emperor in

6355-454: The tlacxitlan , the criminal court of Tenochtitlan (which aside from judging criminals also had the job of freeing "unjustified" slaves), to free those children and offer food to those noblemen. Another natural disaster, of lesser intensity, occurred in the winter of 1514, when a series of dangerous snowstorms resulted in the destruction of various crops and property across Mexico. During his government, he applied multiple policies that centered

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6510-666: The "Council of Music"). Under his rule, Texcoco flourished as the intellectual center of the Triple Alliance and was home to an extensive library that, tragically, did not survive the Spanish conquest. He also established an academy of music and welcomed worthy entrants from all regions of Mesoamerica . Texcoco has been called "the Athens of the Western World," to quote the historian Lorenzo Boturini Bernaducci . Indeed,

6665-438: The "albarrada de Nezahualcoyotl" ("dike of Nezahualcoyotl") to separate the fresh and brackish waters of Lake Texcoco , a system that was still in use over a century after his death. The date of Nezahualcoyotl's death is recorded as being June 4, 1472. He was survived by many concubines and an estimated 110 children. He was succeeded by his son Nezahualpilli as tlatoani of Texcoco . His great-grandson Juan Bautista Pomar

6820-662: The 19th century, the emperor exercised little power beyond the German-speaking states. Although technically an elective title, by the late 16th century, the imperial title had in practice come to be inherited by the Habsburg Archdukes of Austria and, following the Thirty Years' War , their control over the states (outside the Habsburg monarchy , i.e. Austria , Bohemia and various territories outside

6975-704: The Bonapartist movement split, and the Third Republic was to last until 1940. The role of head of the House of Bonaparte is claimed by Jean-Christophe Napoléon and Charles Napoléon . The origin of the title Imperator totius Hispaniae ( Latin for Emperor of All Spain ) is murky. It was associated with the Leonese monarchy perhaps as far back as Alfonso the Great ( r. 866–910). The last two kings of its Astur-Leonese dynasty were called emperors in

7130-593: The Byzantine Empire. This idea was represented more emphatically in the composition the monk Filofej addressed to their son Vasili III . In 1480, after ending Muscovy's dependence on its overlords of the Great Horde , Ivan III began the usage of the titles Tsar and Autocrat ( samoderzhets ). His insistence on recognition as such by the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire since 1489 resulted in

7285-510: The Byzantine imperial title evolved from simply "emperor" ( basileus ) to "emperor of the Romans" ( basileus tōn Rōmaiōn ) in the 9th century, to "emperor and autocrat of the Romans" ( basileus kai autokratōr tōn Rōmaiōn ) in the 10th. In fact, none of these (and other) additional epithets and titles had ever been completely discarded. One important distinction between the post Constantine I (reigned AD 306–337) emperors and their pagan predecessors

7440-524: The Catholic part of Western Europe . The emperor of Japan is the only currently reigning monarch whose title is translated into English as "Emperor". Both emperors and kings are monarchs or sovereigns, both emperor and empress are considered monarchical titles. In as much as there is a strict definition of emperor, it is that an emperor has no relations implying the superiority of any other ruler and typically rules over more than one nation. Therefore,

7595-575: The French ( Empereur des Français ) on 18 May 1804, thus creating the French Empire ( Empire Français ). Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on 6 April and again on 11 April 1814. Napoleon's infant son, Napoleon II , was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and therefore reigned (as opposed to ruled) as Emperor for fifteen days, 22 June to 7 July 1815. Since 3 May 1814,

7750-747: The Holy Roman emperors or the Russian tsars because of their rival claims of the Roman crown . In short, it was an indirect insult by the Ottomans to the HRE and the Russians. The French kings also used it for Morocco (1682) and Persia (1715). Napoleon Bonaparte , who was already First Consul of the French Republic ( Premier Consul de la République française ) for life, declared himself Emperor of

7905-680: The Mexican- Guatemalan border is today. These territories were highly important to the empire and had been previously conquered by his predecessor Ahuizotl , thus Moctezuma had to maintain them under his control. These revolts occurred in so many locations that the empire was unable to deal with all of them effectively. The empire's expansion during Moctezuma's rule was mainly focused on southwestern Mesoamerican territories, in Oaxaca and modern-day Guerrero . The earliest conquests in this territory were held by Moctezuma I . The first important conquest during Moctezuma's rule occurred in

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8060-658: The Senate") and became changed into Augustus' chief honorific, princeps civitatis ("first citizen") from which the modern English word and title prince is descended. The first period of the Roman Empire , from 27 BC to AD 284, is called the principate for this reason. However, it was the informal descriptive of Imperator ("commander") that became the title increasingly favored by his successors. Previously bestowed on high officials and military commanders who had imperium , Augustus reserved it exclusively to himself as

8215-501: The Sovereign Principality of Elba was created as a miniature non-hereditary monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoleon I. According to the Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814) , Napoleon I was allowed to enjoy the imperial title for life. The islands were not restyled an empire. On 26 February 1815, Napoleon abandoned Elba for France, reviving the French Empire for a Hundred Days ; the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on 25 March 1815, and on 31 March 1815 Elba

8370-413: The Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish. At the beginning of his rule, he attempted to build diplomatic ties with Tlaxcala, Huexotzinco (today, Huejotzingo ), Chollolan ( Cholula ), Michoacan , and Metztitlán , by secretly inviting the lords of these countries to attend the celebrations for his coronation before the continuation of the flower wars , which were wars of religious nature arranged voluntarily by

8525-412: The Triple Alliance attacking from various locations and having over 200 wooden ladders constructed under Moctezuma's orders. The Mexica eventually emerged victorious, successfully conquering the city. Several military defeats occurred in some of these expansionist campaigns, however, such as the invasion of Amatlan in 1509, where an unexpected series of snowstorms and blizzards killed many soldiers, making

8680-408: The act of accession to the head of state . Other honorifics used by the Roman emperors have also come to be synonyms for Emperor: After the turbulent Year of the Four Emperors in 69, the Flavian dynasty reigned for three decades. The succeeding Nervan-Antonian dynasty , ruling for most of the 2nd century, stabilised the empire. This epoch became known as the era of the Five Good Emperors , and

8835-409: The adoption of Byzantine imperial traditions in all of these countries. The Emperor of the Romans' title was a reflection of the translatio imperii ( transfer of rule ) principle that regarded the Holy Roman emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire , despite the continued existence of the Roman Empire in the east, hence the problem of two emperors . From

8990-504: The age of 50 to be killed to prevent a rebellion once the cities were conquered, similar to the war in Tlachquiauhco. The conquest was done by dividing the army that was brought in 3 divisions; one from Tlacopan, one from Texcoco, and one from Tenochtitlan, so that each one attacked a different city. The Tenochtitlan company attacked Jaltepec. Moctezuma came out victorious and then returned to Mexico through Chalco, where he received many honors for his victory. This war likely happened in 1511, as

9145-420: The age of five years, as the sons of the kings were expected to receive their education at a much earlier age than the rest of the population. According to some sources, Moctezuma stood out in his childhood for his discipline during his education, finishing his works correctly and being devout to the Aztec religion . Moctezuma was an already famous warrior by the time he became the tlatoani of Mexico, holding

9300-408: The authority of the crusader emperors for another half century. Pretenders to the title continued among the European nobility until circa 1383. With Constantinople occupied, claimants to the imperial succession styled themselves as emperor in the chief centers of resistance: The Laskarid dynasty in the Empire of Nicaea , the Komnenid dynasty in the Empire of Trebizond and the Doukid dynasty in

9455-497: The beginning of his reign, while others, such as his tributary policies, were created as the result of various events, like the famine which occurred at the beginning of his rule. His policies, in general, had the purpose of centralizing the government in his person through the means of implementing policies to settle the divide between the nobility and commoners and abolishing some of the more feudal policies of his predecessors, while also making his tributary policies more severe to aid

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9610-412: The beginning of his rule also resulted in the abolishment of the huehuetlatlacolli system, which was a system of serfdom in which a family agreed to maintain a tlacohtli ( slave or serf) perpetually. This agreement also turned the descendants of the ones who agreed into serfs. During his campaign against Jaltepec and Cuatzontlan ( see below ), he made negotiations with the Tlatelolca to obtain

9765-480: The beginning of the revolt by Icpatepec as the result. The Xaltepeca had done this before with previous tlatoanis and other nations. Moctezuma and the recently elected ruler of Tlacopan themselves went to the fight, along with Tlacaelel 's grandson and cihuacoatl of Mexico in this period Tlacaeleltzin Xocoyotl. A large portion of the weapons and food was brought by Tlatelolco , though they were initially hesitant to do so, but were ordered by Moctezuma to offer it as

9920-406: The complex of Habsburg lands as a whole) had been part of the Archduchy of Austria since the 15th century, and most of the other territories of the Empire had their own institutions and territorial history. There were some attempts at centralization, especially during the reign of Maria Theresa and her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor . These efforts were finalized in the early 19th century. When

10075-426: The conquests of Mazatzintlan and Zacatepec, which formed part of the Chichimec region. The approximate number of military engagements during his rule before European contact was 73, achieving victory in approximately 43 sites (including territories already within the empire), making him one of the most active monarchs in pre-Hispanic Mexican history in terms of military actions. However, his rule and policies suffered

10230-551: The construction of Moctezuma's palace, various projects were made which made it more prestigious by providing entertainment to the public. One of the most famous among these projects was the Totocalli  [ es ] (House of Birds), a zoo which had multiple sorts of animals, mainly avian species, but also contained several predatory animals in their section. These animals were taken care of by servants who cleaned their environments, fed them, and offered them care according to their species. The species of birds held within

10385-405: The court of Texcoco . Nezahualcoyotl is credited with cultivating what came to be known as Texcoco's Golden Age, which brought the rule of law, scholarship and artistry to the city and set high standards that influenced surrounding cultures. Nezahualcoyotl designed a code of law based on the division of power, which created the councils of finance, war, justice and culture (the last actually called

10540-531: The dead bodies of sacrificial victims were also used to feed these animals, and after the battle known as La Noche Triste , which occurred during the early stages of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in June 1520 (during which Moctezuma died ), the bodies of dead Spaniards may have been used to feed them. This place was highly prestigious, and all sorts of important people are said to have used to visit this place, including artists, craftsmen, government officials, and blacksmiths . The Totocalli , however,

10695-439: The derivation of the imperial tradition from the Romans, however this component was never recognised by the Byzantine court. Byzantine recognition of Simeon's imperial title was revoked by the succeeding Byzantine government. The decade 914–924 was spent in destructive warfare between Byzantium and Bulgaria over this and other matters of conflict. The Bulgarian monarch, who had further irritated his Byzantine counterpart by claiming

10850-448: The division between the commoner and noble classes, which included the refusal to offer certain honors to various politicians and warriors for being commoners. He also prohibited any commoners or illegitimate children of the nobility from serving in his palace or high positions of government. This was contrary to the policies of his predecessors, who did allow commoners to serve in such positions. Moctezuma's elitism can be attributed to

11005-485: The dominant rule to identifying an emperor in the modern era. When Republican Rome turned into a de facto monarchy in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch. Ancient Romans abhorred the name Rex ("king") , and it was critical to the political order to maintain the forms and pretenses of republican rule. Julius Caesar had been Dictator , an acknowledged and traditional office in Republican Rome. Caesar

11160-676: The emperor as a semi-republican official to the emperor as an absolute monarch . Of particular note was the translation of the Latin Imperator into the Greek Basileus , after Emperor Heraclius changed the official language of the empire from Latin to Greek in AD 620. Basileus, a title which had long been used for Alexander the Great was already in common usage as the Greek word for the Roman emperor, but its definition and sense

11315-474: The empire quickly collapsed under them. Historical portrayals of Moctezuma have mostly been colored by his role as ruler of a defeated nation, and many sources have described him as weak-willed, superstitious, and indecisive. Depictions of his person among his contemporaries, however, are divided; some depict him as one of the greatest leaders Mexico had, a great conqueror who tried his best to maintain his nation together at times of crisis, while others depict him as

11470-507: The empire was divided among his sons. For a time the concept was of one empire ruled by multiple emperors with varying territory under their control, however following the death of Theodosius I the rule was divided between his two sons and increasingly became separate entities. The areas administered from Rome are referred to by historians the Western Roman Empire and those under the immediate authority of Constantinople called

11625-471: The empire) had become nearly non-existent. However, Napoleon Bonaparte was crowned Emperor of the French in 1804 and was shortly followed by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor , who declared himself Emperor of Austria in the same year. The position of Holy Roman Emperor nonetheless continued until Francis II abdicated that position in 1806. In Eastern Europe , the monarchs of Russia also used translatio imperii to wield imperial authority as successors to

11780-516: The end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 (except in the years 1742 to 1745) only members of the House of Habsburg were Holy Roman emperors. Karl von Habsburg is currently the head of the House of Habsburg. The first Austrian Emperor was the last Holy Roman Emperor, Franz II . In the face of aggressions by Napoleon , Francis feared for the future of the Holy Roman Empire . He wished to maintain his and his family's Imperial status in

11935-403: The enemies, though the fight was brief, as the people of Ayotlan surrendered to the Mexica shortly after he arrived. Approximately in the year 1490, Moctezuma obtained the rank of tequihua , which was reached by capturing at least 4 enemy commanders. The year in which Moctezuma was crowned is uncertain. Most historians suggest the year 1502 to be most likely, though some have argued in favor of

12090-596: The event that the Holy Roman Empire should be dissolved, as it indeed was in 1806 when an Austrian-led army suffered a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Austerlitz . After which, the victorious Napoleon proceeded to dismantle the old Reich by severing a good portion from the empire and turning it into a separate Confederation of the Rhine . With the size of his imperial realm significantly reduced, Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor became Francis I, Emperor of Austria . The new imperial title may have sounded less prestigious than

12245-511: The fall of the Byzantine Empire, the legitimate heir to the throne, Andreas Palaiologos , willed away his claim to Ferdinand and Isabella in 1503. After the independence and proclamation of the Empire of Brazil from the Kingdom of Portugal by Prince Pedro , who became Emperor, in 1822, his father, King John VI of Portugal briefly held the honorific style of Titular Emperor of Brazil and

12400-436: The government of the empire on his person, though it is difficult to tell exactly to which extent those policies were applied, as the records written about such policies tend to be affected by propaganda in favor of or against his person. According to Alva Ixtlilxóchitl, among Moctezuma's policies were the replacement of a large portion of his court (including most of his advisors) with people he deemed preferable, and increasing

12555-587: The granting of this recognition in 1514 by Emperor Maximilian I to Vasili III. His son Ivan IV emphatically crowned himself Tsar of Russia on 16 January 1547. The word "Tsar" derives from Latin Caesar , but this title was used in Russia as equivalent to "King"; the error occurred when medieval Russian clerics referred to the biblical Jewish kings with the same title that was used to designate Roman and Byzantine rulers — "Caesar". Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani) He

12710-456: The high rank of tlacatecuhtli (lord of men) and/or tlacochcalcatl (person from the house of darts) in the Mexica military , and thus his election was largely influenced by his military career and religious influence as a priest, as he was also the main priest of Huitzilopochtli 's temple. One example of a celebrated campaign in which he participated before ascending to the throne was during

12865-655: The indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign. He was killed during the initial stages of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire when conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men fought to take over the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan . During his reign, the Aztec Empire reached its greatest size. Through warfare, Moctezuma expanded the territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and

13020-528: The last German emperor. After the empire's defeat in World War I the empire, called the German Reich , had a president as head of state instead of an emperor. The use of the word Reich was abandoned following World War II . In 1472, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologina , married Ivan III , grand prince of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to

13175-464: The last stages of the conquest of Ayotlan, during Ahuizotl's reign in the late 15th century. During this campaign, which lasted 4 years, a group of Mexica pochteca merchants were put under siege by the enemy forces. This was important because the merchants were closely related to Ahuizotl and served as military commanders and soldiers themselves when needed. To rescue the merchants, Ahuizotl sent then-prince Moctezuma with many soldiers to fight against

13330-869: The late 5th century BC, the Angevin Empire of the Plantagenets and the Soviet and American "empires" of the Cold War era. However, such "empires" did not need to be headed by an "emperor". "Empire" became identified instead with vast territorial holdings rather than the title of its ruler by the mid-18th century. For purposes of protocol, the size and scope of a kingdom or empire may determine precedence in international diplomatic relations, but currently, precedence among heads of state who are sovereigns—whether they be kings, queens, emperors, empresses, princes, princesses and presidents may be determined by

13485-401: The main commander of the Spanish troops that entered Mexico in the year 1519, himself stated in his letters to the king of Spain that he would not bother describing it, claiming that it "was so marvelous that it seems to me impossible to describe its excellence." The palace had a large courtyard that opened into the central plaza of the city to the north, where Templo Mayor was. This courtyard

13640-480: The meantime, the Bulgarian imperial title may have been also tacitly confirmed by the pope , as claimed in later Bulgarian diplomatic correspondence. The Bulgarian imperial title "tsar" was adopted by all Bulgarian monarchs up to the fall of Bulgaria under Ottoman rule. Despite the attempt of Pope Innocent III to limit the Bulgarian monarch to the title of King ( Rex ), Kaloyan of Bulgaria considered himself an Emperor ( Imperator ) and his successor Boril of Bulgaria

13795-409: The merchants sent by Moctezuma in the area. The Mexica managed to raise an army of 400,000 and first conquered Tototepec. Quetzaltepec was also conquered, but it rebelled along with various sites across Oaxaca soon after when the Mexica lost the Battle of Atlixco against Huejotzingo . Being a fortified city with six walls, the Mexica put the city under siege for several days, with the each of groups of

13950-621: The old one, but Francis' dynasty continued to rule from Austria and a Habsburg monarch was still an emperor ( Kaiser ), and not just merely a king ( König ), in name. According to the historian Friedrich Heer, the Austrian Habsburg emperor remained an "auctoritas" of a special kind. He was "the grandson of the Caesars", he remained the patron of the Holy Church . The title lasted just a little over one century until 1918, but it

14105-608: The other kingdoms and lands represented in the Imperial Council established their independence or adhesion to other states. The Kaisers of the Austrian Empire (1804–1918) were Franz I (1804–1835), Ferdinand I (1835–1848), Franz Joseph I (1848–1916) and Karl I (1916–1918). The current head of the House of Habsburg is Karl von Habsburg . In 913, Simeon I of Bulgaria was crowned Emperor ( Tsar , originally more fully Tsesar, cěsar' ) of his own people by

14260-447: The parties involved with no territorial purposes, but instead to capture and sacrifice as many soldiers as possible. During this period, Mexico and Tlaxcala still were not at war, but the tension between these nations was high, and the embassy sent for this purpose was put in a highly risky situation, for which reason Moctezuma chose as members of the embassy only experts in diplomacy , espionage , and languages. Fortunately, his invitation

14415-482: The past or the present. Some titles are considered equivalent to "emperor" or are translated as "emperor". Examples of that are Roman emperors' titles, King of Kings , Khalifa , Huangdi , Cakravartin , Great Khan , Aztec monarchs' title, Inca monarchs' title, etc. Sometimes this reference has even extended to non-monarchically ruled states and their spheres of influence, such as the Athenian Empire of

14570-471: The political establishments founded during the pre-Hispanic era, leaving just a few in place. Among the few policies that lasted was the divide between the nobility and the commoners, as members of the pre-Hispanic nobility continued to enjoy various privileges under the Viceroyalty of New Spain , such as land ownership through a system known as cacicazgo . Moctezuma, like many of his predecessors, built

14725-414: The population during natural disasters and to compensate for a less expansionist focus in his military campaigns. Most of the policies implemented during his rule would not last long after his death, as the empire fell into Spanish control on 13 August 1521 as a result of the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , one year after he died. The new Spanish authorities implemented their laws and removed many of

14880-467: The population. Moctezuma and the lords of Texcoco and Tlacopan, Nezahualpilli , and Totoquihuatzin, attempted to aid the population during the disaster, including using all available food supplies to feed the population and raising tributes for one year. The drought and famine ultimately lasted three years, and at some point became so severe that some noblemen reportedly sold their children as slaves in exchange for food to avoid starvation. Moctezuma ordered

15035-456: The population. Some provinces, however, ended up paying more tribute permanently, most likely as the result of his primary military focus shifting from territorial expansion to stabilization of the empire through the suppression of rebellions. Most of the provinces affected by these new tributary policies were in the Valley of Mexico . For example, the province of Amaquemecan , which formed part of

15190-549: The prince returned to stay in Tenochtitlan in 1422. His aunts bribed the Tepanec king and allowed for him to be partially educated as a Mexica . His exposure to Mexica culture and politics would influence how he later governed Texcoco. After Tezozomoc's son Maxtla became ruler of Azcapotzalco, Nezahualcoyotl returned to Texcoco, but had to go into exile a second time when he learned that Maxtla plotted against his life. As

15345-617: The process. Abundant territorial expansion was carried out following this. Another notable rebellion occurred in Atlixco (in modern-day Puebla ), a city neighboring Tlaxcala which had previously been conquered by Ahuizotl. This rebellion occurred in 1508, and was repressed by a prince named Macuilmalinatzin. This wasn't the first conflict that occurred in this region, as its proximity with Tlaxcala and Huejotzingo would cause multiple conflicts to erupt in this area during Moctezuma's reign. A large series of rebellions occurred in 1510, likely as

15500-522: The reconstruction of his city. Motolinia claims he enacted some eighty laws addressing issues such as treason, robbery, adultery, homicide, alcohol abuse, misuse of inheritances, and military misconduct. The Mapa Quinatzin depicts the hanging of a robber for stealing or breaking into a house. Revered as a sage and poet-king, Nezahualcoyotl gathered a group of followers called the tlamatini , generally translated as "wise men." These men were scholars, artists, musicians and sculptors who pursued their art in

15655-462: The region and probably turned the Kingdom of Tlachinollan (modern-day Tlapa ) into a tributary province during the rule of Lord Tlaloc between 1461 and 1467 (though the kingdom would not be invaded and fully conquered until the reign of Ahuizotl in 1486, along with Caltitlan, a city neighboring west of Tlapa). In between the years of 1503 and 1509, a campaign was launched against Xipetepec, and another

15810-490: The region were also conquered. He also went to war against the Tarascan Empire for the first time since Axayácatl was defeated in his disastrous invasion. This war caused high casualties on both sides. The Mexica succeeded at taking a large amount of captives, but failed to conquer any territory. Among the final military campaigns carried out by Moctezuma, aside from the late stages of the war against Tlaxcala, were

15965-424: The remains of hilltop gardens, sculptures and a massive aqueduct system show the impressive engineering skills and aesthetic appreciation of his reign. Many believe, however, that of all the creative intellects nurtured by this Texcocan "Athens," by far the greatest belonged to the king himself. He is considered one of the great designers and architects of the pre-Hispanic era. He is said to have personally designed

16120-523: The request of the Roman Senate and following the death of Julius Nepos , last Western Emperor. This change was a recognition of the reality that little remained of Imperial authority in the areas that had been the Western Empire, with even Rome and Italy itself now ruled by the essentially autonomous Odoacer . These Later Roman "Byzantine" emperors completed the transition from the idea of

16275-517: The rest were sacrificed in his honor on the fourth day of his coronation. In Nopala, Mexica soldiers committed a massacre and burned down the temples and houses, going against Moctezuma's wishes. After the campaign, celebrations for his coronation continued in Tenochtitlan. Moctezuma's territorial expansion, however, would not truly begin until another rebellion was suppressed in Tlachquiauhco (today known as Tlaxiaco ), where its ruler, Malinalli,

16430-810: The rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: the Second war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War against the Second French Empire in 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris in 1871, the North German Confederation , supported by its allies from southern Germany , formed

16585-648: The rule of Henry VIII the Statute in Restraint of Appeals declared that 'this realm of England is an Empire...governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the imperial Crown of the same'. This was in the context of the divorce of Catherine of Aragon and the English Reformation , to emphasize that England had never accepted the quasi-imperial claims of the papacy. Hence England and, by extension its modern successor state,

16740-452: The same year; Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl states that the coronation took place on 24 May 1503. However, most documents say Moctezuma's coronation happened in the year 1502, and therefore most historians believe this to have been the actual date. After his coronation, Moctezuma set up thirty-eight more provincial divisions, largely to centralize the empire. He sent out bureaucrats, accompanied by military garrisons, who made sure tax

16895-413: The size and scope or time that each one has been continuously in office . Outside the European context, "emperor" was the translation given to holders of titles who were accorded the same precedence as European emperors in diplomatic terms. In reciprocity, these rulers might accredit equal titles in their native languages to their European peers. Through centuries of international convention, this has become

17050-494: The south. The two armies simultaneously attacked Acolhuacan from two directions until they controlled the city's main square. After their victory, the coalition began a series of attacks on isolated Tepanec posts throughout the territory of Texcoco. The defeat of the Tepanecs and the total destruction of the kingdom of Azcapotzalco gave rise to the Aztec Triple Alliance between Texcoco, Tenochtitlan, and Tlacopan. Nezahualcoyotl

17205-476: The state into being conquered by Tlaxcala. During his reign, he married the queen of Ecatepec , Tlapalizquixochtzin , making him king consort of this altepetl , though according to the chronicle written by Bernal Díaz del Castillo , very few people in Mexico knew about this political role, being only a few among his closest courtiers among those who knew. The first military campaign during his rule, which

17360-460: The surviving ones too low in numbers to fight. An important campaign was the conquest of Xaltepec (today known as Jaltepec ) and Cuatzontlan and the suppression of the last revolt in Icpatepec, all in Oaxaca. This war started as the result of provocations given by Jaltepec against Moctezuma through killing as many Mexicas as they could find in their area, as some sort of way to challenge him, and

17515-473: The three armies united again and then divided into two. One of them, under Nezahualcoyotl, headed towards Texcoco , laying siege to Acolhuacan on its way, while the other attacked and destroyed Azcapotzalco . At the time the armies met again, Nezahualcoyotl reclaimed Texcoco and decided to conquer Acolhuacan, entering from the north while the Tenochca and Tlacopan allies coming from Azcapotzalco attacked from

17670-460: The time of Otto the Great onward, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire . The prince-electors elected one of their peers as King of the Romans and King of Italy before being crowned by the Pope . The emperor could also pursue the election of his heir (usually a son) as King, who would then succeed him after his death. This junior king then bore

17825-407: The time: Tenochtitlan, Tlacopan , Tlatelolco , Huexotzingo, Tlaxcala and Chalco . The war was declared a shared and single effort, and the coalition army of more than 100,000 men under the command of Nezahualcoyotl and other important tlatoque headed towards Azcapotzalco from the city of Calpulalpan . This began the military offensive that would reconquer Acolhuacan in 1428. The campaign

17980-590: The title " Emperor of India " by the British monarch , but this was not executed by King George VI until a royal proclamation on 22 June 1948. Despite this, George VI continued as king of India until 1950 and as king of Pakistan until his death in 1952. The last Empress of India was George VI's wife, Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother . Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck 's authoritarian Realpolitik . Bismarck wanted to unify

18135-634: The title "Emperor of the Romans" ( basileus tōn Rōmaiōn ), was eventually recognized, as "Emperor of the Bulgarians" ( basileus tōn Boulgarōn ) by the Byzantine Emperor Romanos I Lakapenos in 924. Byzantine recognition of the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian monarch and the patriarchal dignity of the Bulgarian patriarch was again confirmed at the conclusion of permanent peace and a Bulgarian-Byzantine dynastic marriage in 927. In

18290-430: The title of King of the Romans. Although technically already ruling, after the election he would be crowned as emperor by the pope. The last emperor to be crowned by the pope was Charles V ; all emperors after him were technically emperors-elect , but were universally referred to as emperor . The Holy Roman emperor was considered the first among those in power. He was also the first defender of Christianity. From 1452 to

18445-408: The title. Napoleon I's nephew, Napoleon III , resurrected the title of emperor on 2 December 1852, after establishing the Second French Empire in a presidential coup , subsequently approved by a plebiscite. His reign was marked by large scale public works, the development of social policy, and the extension of France's influence throughout the world. During his reign, he also set about creating

18600-596: The treatment of His Imperial and Royal Majesty under the 1825 Treaty of Rio de Janeiro , by which Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil. The style of Titular Emperor was a life title, and became extinct upon the holder's demise. John VI held the imperial title for a few months only, from the ratification of the Treaty in November 1825 until his death in March 1826. During those months, however, as John's imperial title

18755-405: The ultimate holder of all imperium . ( Imperium is Latin for the authority to command, one of a various types of authority delineated in Roman political thought.) Beginning with Augustus, Imperator appeared in the title of all Roman monarchs through the extinction of the Empire in 1453. After the reign of Augustus' immediate successor Tiberius , being proclaimed imperator was transformed into

18910-534: The use of force and often ended with violent results. As mentioned previously, the first campaign during his reign, which was done in honor of his coronation, was the suppression of a rebellion in Nopallan (today known as Santos Reyes Nopala ) and Icpatepec (a Mixtec town that no longer exists which was near Silacayoapam ), both in modern-day Oaxaca . The prisoners taken during this campaign were later used as slaves or for human sacrifice . After Mexico suffered

19065-479: The weapons and resources needed. As a result of these negotiations, Tlatelolco was given more sovereignty; they were permitted to rebuild their main temple which was partially destroyed in the Battle of Tlatelolco in a civil war during Axayácatl 's reign, act largely independently during military campaigns, and be absolved from paying tribute. Many of these policies were planned together with his uncle Tlilpotonqui , cihuacoatl of Mexico and son of Tlacaelel , at

19220-714: The west with the rise of Roman Catholicism . The Byzantine Empire also produced three women who effectively governed the state: the Empress Irene and the Empresses Zoe and Theodora . In 1204 Constantinople fell to the Venetians and the Franks in the Fourth Crusade . Following the tragedy of the horrific sacking of the city, the conquerors declared a new "Empire of Romania", known to historians as

19375-708: The year 1503. A work currently held at the Art Institute of Chicago known as the Stone of the Five Suns is an inscription written in stone representing the Five Suns and a date le 11 reed, which is equivalent to 15 July 1503 in the Gregorian calendar . Some historians believe this to be the exact date on which the coronation took place, as it is also included in some primary sources. Other dates have been given from

19530-413: The year 1504 when the city of Achiotlan (today known as San Juan Achiutla ) was conquered. This war, according to some sources, was supposedly mainly caused by "a small tree which belonged to a lord of the place which grew such beautiful flowers Moctezuma's envy couldn't resist it", and when Moctezuma asked for it, the lord of the city refused to offer it, thus starting the war. After the conquest, this tree

19685-610: The year 1507, the year of the New Fire Ceremony , abundant military action occurred. Among the towns that are listed to have been conquered this year are: Tecuhtepec (from which multiple prisoners were sacrificed for the ceremony), Iztitlan, Nocheztlan (an important town northeast of Achiutla), Quetzaltepec, and Tototepec. The conquest of Tototepec formed part of the conquests of some of the last few Tlapanec territories of modern-day Guerrero, an area which had already been in decline since Moctezuma I began his first campaigns in

19840-518: The zoo were widely varied, holding animals like quetzals , eagles , true parrots , and others, and also included water species like roseate spoonbills and various others that had their pond . The section with animals other than birds, which was decorated with figures of gods associated with the wild, was also considerably varied, having jaguars , wolves , snakes , and other smaller predatory animals. These animals were fed on hunted animals like deer , turkeys , and other smaller animals. Allegedly,

19995-429: Was cesaropapism , the assertion that the emperor (or other head of state) is also the head of the Church. Although this principle was held by all emperors after Constantine, it met with increasing resistance and ultimately rejection by bishops in the west after the effective end of Imperial power there. This concept became a key element of the meaning of "emperor" in the Byzantine and Orthodox east, but went out of favor in

20150-613: Was "King" in Greek, essentially equivalent with the Latin Rex . Byzantine period emperors also used the Greek word "autokrator", meaning "one who rules himself", or "monarch", which was traditionally used by Greek writers to translate the Latin dictator . Essentially, the Greek language did not incorporate the nuances of the Ancient Roman concepts that distinguished imperium from other forms of political power. In general usage,

20305-438: Was a place where hundreds of courtiers would hold multiple sorts of activities, including feasts and waiting for royal business to be conducted. This courtyard had suites of rooms that surrounded smaller courtyards and gardens. His residence had many rooms for various purposes. Aside from his room, at the central part of the upper floor, there were two rooms beside it which were known as coacalli (guest house). One of these rooms

20460-653: Was accepted, and Moctezuma used this opportunity to show his greatness to the lords who attended. However, because the invitation was secret to avoid a scandal for inviting his rivals to this ceremony, Moctezuma ordered that no one should know that the lords were present, not even the rulers of Tlacopan (today known as Tacuba) and Texcoco, and the lords saw themselves often forced to pretend to be organizers to avoid confusion. Though Moctezuma would continue to hold meetings with these people, where various religious rituals were held, it did not take long for large-scale conflicts to erupt between these nations. An important thing to note

20615-478: Was also Nezahualcóyotl 's grandson; he was a son of emperor Axayácatl and one of Nezahualcóyotl's daughters, Izelcoatzin or Xochicueyetl. Two of his uncles were Tízoc and Ahuizotl , the two previous emperors. As was customary among Mexica nobles, Moctezuma was educated in the Calmecac , the educational institution for the nobility. He would have been enrolled into the institution at a very early age, likely at

20770-538: Was being paid, national laws were being upheld and served as local judges in case of disagreement. Moctezuma's reign began with difficulties. In the year 1505, a major drought resulted in widespread crop failure , and thus a large portion of the population of central Mexico began to starve. One of the few places in the empire not affected by this drought was Totonacapan , and many people from Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco sought refuge in this region to avoid starvation. Large amounts of maize were brought from this area to aid

20925-468: Was built for the lords of Tlacopan and Texcoco, the other two members of the Triple Alliance, who came to visit. The other room was for the lords of Colhuacan , Tenayohcan (today known as Tenayuca ) and Chicuhnautlan (today, Santa María Chiconautla  [ es ] ). The exact reason why this room had this purpose remains uncertain, though a few records like Codex Mendoza say the reason

21080-522: Was burnt and destroyed, along with many other constructions, in the year 1521 during the Siege of Tenochtitlan , as the Spanish captain Hernán Cortés ordered for many of the buildings that formed part of the royal palaces to be burnt to demoralize the Mexica army and civilians. Though Cortés himself admitted that he enjoyed the zoo, he stated that he saw it as a necessary measure in his third letter to King Charles I of Spain . Another construction

21235-536: Was ceded to the restored Grand Duchy of Tuscany by the Congress of Vienna. After his final defeat, Napoleon was treated as a general by the British authorities during his second exile to Atlantic Isle of St. Helena . His title was a matter of dispute with the governor of St Helena, who insisted on addressing him as "General Bonaparte", despite the "historical reality that he had been an emperor" and therefore retained

21390-510: Was declared Empress of India . In Western Europe , the title of Emperor was used exclusively by the Holy Roman Emperor , whose imperial authority was derived from the concept of translatio imperii , i.e., they claimed succession to the authority of the Roman emperors , thus linking themselves to Roman institutions and traditions as part of state ideology. Although initially ruling much of Central Europe and northern Italy, by

21545-410: Was divided into three parts. One army attacked Acolman to the north and the second Coatlinchan to the south. A contingent led by Nezahualcoyotl himself was intended to attack Acolhuacan, only after providing support, upon request, to the first two armies. The coalition conquered Acolman and Otumba , sacking them only due to the sudden Tepanec siege of Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. In a tactical move,

21700-478: Was done in honor of his coronation, was the violent suppression of a rebellion in Nopala and Icpatepec. For this war, a force of over 60,000 soldiers from Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tepanec lands, Chalco , and Xochimilco participated, and Moctezuma himself went to the frontlines. Approximately 5100 prisoners were taken after the campaign, many of whom were given to inhabitants of Tenochtitlan and Chalco as slaves, while

21855-444: Was eventually crowned Tlatoani of Texcoco in 1431. A decade later, eager to produce a noble heir, Nezahualcoyotl married Azcalxochitzin after the death of her first husband, King Cuahcuauhtzin of Tepechpan. According to Motolinia , Nezahualcoyotl practiced his strict laws judiciously and imposed them on all his subjects. He purportedly killed four of his sons for their sexual relationships with his concubines. Cities conquered by

22010-646: Was followed by the short-lived Severan dynasty . During the Crisis of the 3rd century , barracks emperors succeeded one another at short intervals. Three short lived secessionist attempts had their own emperors: the Gallic Empire , the Britannic Empire , and the Palmyrene Empire though the latter used rex more regularly. The Principate (27 BC – 284 AD) period was succeeded by what

22165-477: Was killed after trying to start the rebellion. In this campaign, all adults above the age of 50 within the city were killed under Moctezuma's orders as he blamed them for the rebellion. A characteristic fact about Moctezuma's wars was that a large portion of them had the purpose of suppressing rebellions rather than conquering new territory, contrary to his predecessors, whose main focus was territorial expansion. During his reign, multiple rebellions were suppressed by

22320-538: Was launched (as mentioned previously) in 1507 against Tototepec, which had previously been a territory conquered by Tlachinollan in the mid-14th century. The campaign in Tototepec occurred as the result of a large group of Mexica merchants sent by Moctezuma being killed after they attempted to trade for some of the resources of the area on his behalf. During the conquest of Tototepec, two important Mexica noblemen, Ixtlilcuechahuac and Huitzilihuitzin (not to be confused with

22475-592: Was never clear what territory constituted the " Empire of Austria ". When Francis took the title in 1804, the Habsburg lands as a whole were dubbed the Kaisertum Österreich . Kaisertum might literally be translated as "emperordom" (on analogy with "kingdom") or "emperor-ship"; the term denotes specifically "the territory ruled by an emperor", and is thus somewhat more general than Reich , which in 1804 carried connotations of universal rule. Austria proper (as opposed to

22630-490: Was no consistent title for the king of England before 1066, and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased. Imperial titles were used inconsistently, beginning with Athelstan in 930 and ended with the Norman conquest of England . Empress Matilda (1102–1167) is the only English monarch commonly referred to as "emperor" or "empress", but she acquired her title through her marriage to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor . During

22785-637: Was not exactly hereditary but self-proclaimed by those who had, wholly or partially, united the Christian northern part of the Iberian Peninsula , often at the expense of killing rival siblings. The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom. After Alfonso VII's death in 1157, the title was abandoned, and the kings who used it are not commonly mentioned as having been "emperors", in Spanish or other historiography. After

22940-477: Was not the first to hold it, but following his assassination the term was abhorred in Rome. Augustus , considered the first Roman emperor , established his hegemony by collecting on himself offices, titles, and honours of Republican Rome that had traditionally been distributed to different people, concentrating what had been distributed power in one man. One of these offices was princeps senatus , ("first man of

23095-678: Was purely honorific while his son, Pedro I, remained the sole monarch of the Brazilian Empire. Duarte Pio is the current head of the House of Braganza . In the late 3rd century, by the end of the epoch of the barracks emperors in Rome, there were two Britannic emperors , reigning for about a decade. After the end of Roman rule in Britain , the Imperator Cunedda forged the Kingdom of Gwynedd in northern Wales, but all his successors were titled kings and princes. There

23250-531: Was specifically accused of improperly using the imperial title by his neighbor, the Latin Emperor Henry of Flanders . Nevertheless, the Bulgarian imperial title was recognized by its neighbors and trading partners, including Byzantium, Hungary, Serbia, Venice, Genoa, Dubrovnik. 14th-century Bulgarian literary compositions saw the Bulgarian capital ( Tarnovo ) as a successor of Rome and Constantinople . After Bulgaria obtained full independence from

23405-596: Was supposedly taken to Tenochtitlan. The second conquest occurred in Zozollan, a place neighboring east of Achiutla, on 28 May 1506, during the campaign against the Yanhuitlan rebellion. This conquest had a particularly violent result, as a special sacrifice was held after the campaign where the prisoners captured in Zozollan were the victims. "The Mexicans killed many of the people from Zozola [ sic ] which they captured in war", according to old sources. In

23560-408: Was that these lords were personal friends of Moctezuma. There was also another room which became known as Casa Denegrida de Moctezuma (Spanish: Moctezuma's Black House), a room with no windows and fully painted black which was used by Moctezuma to meditate . Remains of this room have been found in recent years in modern Mexico City . The upper floor had a large courtyard which was likely used as

23715-606: Was the Chapultepec aqueduct , built in 1506 to bring fresh water directly from Chapultepec to Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco. This water was driven to the merchant ports of the city for people to drink and to the temples. This aqueduct was destroyed less than a year after Moctezuma's death, during the Siege of Tenochtitlan in 1521, as the Spaniards decided to destroy it to cut Tenochtitlan's water supply. Some Mexica warriors attempted to resist its destruction, but were repelled by

23870-458: Was the great-grandson of Moctezuma I through his daughter Atotoztli II and her husband Huehue Tezozómoc (not to be confused with the Tepanec leader ). According to some sources, Tezozómoc was the son of emperor Itzcóatl , which would make Moctezuma his great-grandson, but other sources claim that Tezozómoc was Chimalpopoca 's son, thus nephew of Itzcóatl, and a lord in Ecatepec . Moctezuma

24025-402: Was the wife of the reigning German Emperor ). Hence, "Queen Victoria felt handicapped in the battle of protocol by not being an Empress herself". The Indian Imperial designation was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding the former Mughal Emperor as suzerain over hundreds of princely states . The Indian Independence Act 1947 provided for the abolition of the use of

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