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115-475: The beginning of China's democracy movements is usually regarded as the Democracy Wall movement of November 1978 to spring 1981. The Democracy Wall movement framed the key issue as the elimination of bureaucratism and the bureaucratic class. Former Red Guards from both rebel and conservative factions were the core of the movement. Democracy Wall participants agreed that "democracy" was the means to resolve

230-589: A Public interest litigation (PIL) in the "Supreme Court of India" (SC) to identify and deport illegal immigrants. Responding to this PIL, Delhi Police told the SC in July 2019 that nearly 500 illegal Bangladeshi immigrants have been deported in the preceding 28 months. There are estimated 600,000 to 700,000 illegal Bangladeshi and Rohingya immigrants in National Capital Region (NCR) region specially in

345-402: A dissident movement are identified and given severe jail sentences. Generally, the government targets a relatively small number of organizers who are crucial in coordinating a movement and who are then charged with endangering state security or revealing official secrets. Thirdly, the government attempts to address the grievances of possible supporters of the movement. This is intended to isolate

460-459: A form of absolute command rather than as educators, gave students a reason to believe Red Guard messages. In Yang's case it is exemplified through a teacher using a poorly phrased statement as an excuse to shame a student to legitimize the teacher's own position. Attacks on culture quickly descended into attacks on people. Ignoring guidelines in the 'Sixteen Articles' which stipulated that persuasion rather than force were to be used to bring about

575-541: A group of the Red Guard called the 815. In December 2009 that cemetery was made the first Cultural Revolution relic to be formally recognized for its cultural heritage site. National security National security , or national defence ( national defense in American English ), is the security and defence of a sovereign state , including its citizens , economy , and institutions , which

690-651: A label referencing the period of time the work teams were active. The Red Guards were then free to organize without the restrictions of the Party and, within a few weeks, on the encouragement of Mao's supporters, Red Guard groups had appeared in almost every school in China. Mao had multiple reasons for supporting the Red Guards' activities, with the primary one being his wish to undermine Liu Shaoqi, with whom he grew increasingly distrustful. Furthermore, Mao intended to make

805-562: A long and possibly bloody fight. Throughout the 1980s, these ideas increased in popularity among college-educated Chinese, through the " New Enlightenment movement " led by intellectuals. In response to growing corruption , economic dislocation and the sense that reforms in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe were leaving China behind, the Tiananmen Square protests erupted in 1989, the second massive student movement after

920-469: A mass, student-led, paramilitary social movement mobilized by Chairman Mao Zedong in 1966 until their abolishment in 1968, during the first phase of the Cultural Revolution , which he had instituted. According to a Red Guard leader, the movement's aims were as follows: Chairman Mao has defined our future as an armed revolutionary youth organization   .... So if Chairman Mao

1035-537: A minority. Demands for "democracy" were frequent but without an agreed-upon meaning. Participants in the movement variously associated the concept of democracy with socialism, communism, liberal democracy, capitalism, and Christianity. They drew on a diverse range of intellectual resources "ranging from classical Marxist and socialist traditions to Enlightenment philosophers, [socialist] experiments in Yugoslavia, and Western liberal democracy." Significant documents of

1150-584: A powerful phrase to invoke against diverse threats to interests of the state, such as domestic concerns. The notion that national security encompasses more than just military security was present, though understated, from the beginning. The Act established the National Security Council so as to "advise the President on the integration of domestic, military and foreign policies relating to national security". The act establishes, within

1265-576: A remarkable level of popular political mobilization. At no point in the previous history of the regime were ordinary citizens permitted, much less encouraged, to form independent political organizations." Due to the factionalism already emerging in the Red Guard movement, President Liu Shaoqi made the decision in early June 1966 to send in Chinese Communist Party (CCP) work teams. These workgroups were led by Zhang Chunqiao , head of China's Propaganda Department , in an attempt by

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1380-757: A repeat of the Wuhan events and other similar ones. The PLA violently put down the national Red Guard movement in the year that followed, with the suppression often brutal. A radical alliance of Red Guard groups in Hunan province, called the Shengwulian , was involved in clashes with local PLA units, for example, and in the first half of 1968 was forcibly suppressed. At the same time the PLA carried out mass executions of Red Guards in Guangxi province that were unprecedented in

1495-703: A state is at peace. National security ideology as taught by the US Army School of the Americas to military personnel was vital in causing the military coup of 1964 in Brazil and the 1976 one in Argentina. The military dictatorships were installed on the claim by the military that Leftists were an existential threat to the national interests. China's military is the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The military

1610-551: A team of Red Guards from Beijing Normal University , led by Tan Houlan. The corpse of the 76th-generation Duke Yansheng was removed from its grave and hung naked from a tree in front of the palace during the desecration of the cemetery. Attacks on other cultural and historic sites occurred between 1966 and 1967. One of the greater damages was to the Ming Dynasty Tomb of the Wanli Emperor in which his and

1725-551: A trance of excitement and change," all student Red Guards pledged their loyalty to Chairman Mao Zedong. Many worshipped Mao above everything and this was typical of a "pure and innocent generation," especially of a generation that was brought up under a Marxist party, which discouraged religion altogether. Mao quickly formed an army based on individual interpretations of Mao's statements. All groups pledged loyalty to Mao and claimed to have his best interests in mind, yet they continually engaged in verbal and physical skirmishes throughout

1840-402: Is also important since most of the countries in the world are developing and dependent on agriculture and agriculture gets affected largely due to climate change. This effect affects the economy of the nation, which in turn affects national security. The scope and nature of environmental threats to national security and strategies to engage them are a subject of debate. Romm (1993) classifies

1955-534: Is associated primarily with managing physical threats and with the military capabilities used for doing so. That is, national security is often understood as the capacity of a nation to mobilise military forces to guarantee its borders and to deter or successfully defend against physical threats including military aggression and attacks by non-state actors , such as terrorism . Most states, such as South Africa and Sweden, configure their military forces mainly for territorial defence; others, such as France, Russia,

2070-576: Is defined in Ukrainian law as "a set of legislative and organisational measures aimed at permanent protection of vital interests of man and citizen, society and the state, which ensure sustainable development of society, timely detection, prevention and neutralisation of real and potential threats to national interests in areas of law enforcement, fight against corruption, border activities and defence, migration policy, health care, education and science, technology and innovation policy, cultural development of

2185-517: Is now considered a major threat, cyberspace is now recognised as a domain of warfare. One such example is the use of Stuxnet by the US and Israel against the Iranian nuclear programme Barry Buzan , Ole Wæver , Jaap de Wilde and others have argued that national security depends on political security : the stability of the social order. Others, such as Paul Rogers, have added that the equitability of

2300-467: Is our Red-Commander-in-Chief and we are his Red Guards, who can stop us? First we will make China Maoist from inside out and then we will help the working people of other countries make the world red   ... and then the whole universe. Despite meeting with resistance early on, the Red Guards received personal support from Mao, and the movement rapidly grew. The movement in Beijing culminated during

2415-408: Is regarded as a duty of government . Originally conceived as protection against military attack , national security is widely understood to include also non-military dimensions, such as the security from terrorism , minimization of crime , economic security , energy security , environmental security , food security , and cyber-security . Similarly, national security risks include, in addition to

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2530-446: Is the largest in the world, with 2.3 million active troops in 2005. The Ministry of State Security was established in 1983 to ensure "the security of the state through effective measures against enemy agents, spies, and counterrevolutionary activities designed to sabotage or overthrow China's socialist system." For Schengen area some parts of national security and external border control are enforced by Frontex according to

2645-436: Is the subject of debate. Some argue that the principal beneficiary of national security policy should be the nation state itself, which should centre its strategy on protective and coercive capabilities in order to safeguard itself in a hostile environment (and potentially to project that power into its environment, and dominate it to the point of strategic supremacy ). Others argue that security depends principally on building

2760-562: Is the urgent need to protect valuables such as these which legitimizes and makes essential the role of national security. To address the institutionalisation of new bureaucracies and government practices in the post–World War II period in the U.S., the culture of semi-permanent military mobilisation joined the National Security Council (NSC), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Department of Defense (DoD), and

2875-500: Is why we see countries with sound economy, happen to have sound security setup too, such as The United States , China , India among others. In larger countries, strategies for economic security expect to access resources and markets in other countries and to protect their own markets at home. Developing countries may be less secure than economically advanced states due to high rates of unemployment and underpaid work. Environmental security, also known as ecological security, refers to

2990-489: The 1986 student protests . In 1989, these protests were violently suppressed by government troops on June 4, 1989. In response, a number of pro- democracy organizations were formed by overseas Chinese student activists , and there was considerable sympathy for the movement among Westerners, who formed the China Support Network (CSN). Ideologically , the government's first reaction to the democracy movement

3105-636: The British Transport Police . There are also commercial transportation security units such as the Amtrak Police in the United States. Critical infrastructure is vital for the essential functioning of a country. Incidental or deliberate damage can have a serious impact on the economy and essential services. Some of the threats to infrastructure include: Computer security , also known as cybersecurity or IT security, refers to

3220-586: The National Security Council of India , receives all kinds of intelligence reports, and is chief advisor to the Prime Minister of India over national and international security policy. The National Security Council has India's defence , foreign , home , finance ministers and deputy chairman of NITI Aayog as its members and is responsible for shaping strategies for India's security in all aspects. A lawyer Ashwini Upadhyay filed

3335-737: The Treaty of Lisbon . The security policy of the European Union is set by High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and assisted by European External Action Service . Europol is one of the agencies of the European Union responsible for combating various forms of crime in the European Union through coordinating law enforcement agencies of the EU member states. European Union national security has been accused of insufficiently preventing foreign threats. The state of

3450-487: The Tsinghua University High School , who were given the name to sign two big-character posters issued on 25 May – 2 June 1966. The students believed that the criticism of the play Hai Rui Dismissed from Office was a political issue and needed greater attention. The group of students – led by Zhang Chengzhi at Tsinghua Middle School and Nie Yuanzi at Peking University – originally wrote

3565-724: The UK's National Security Strategy . It was created in May 2010 by the new coalition government of the Conservative Party (UK) and Liberal Democrats . The National Security Council is a committee of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and was created as part of a wider reform of the national security apparatus . This reform also included the creation of a National Security Adviser and a National Security Secretariat to support

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3680-605: The electricity grid , dams , power plants , seaports , oil refineries , and water systems . Infrastructure security seeks to limit vulnerability of these structures and systems to sabotage , terrorism , and contamination . Many countries have established government agencies to directly manage the security of critical infrastructure, usually, through the Ministry of Interior/Home Affairs, dedicated security agencies to protect facilities such as United States Federal Protective Service , and also dedicated transport police such as

3795-457: The status quo . In addition, there were bitter divisions within the Red Guard movement itself, especially along social and political lines. The most radical students often found themselves in conflict with more conservative Red Guards. The leadership in Beijing also simultaneously tried to restrain and encourage the Red Guards, adding confusion to an already chaotic situation. On the one hand,

3910-696: The " National Security Strategy to 2020 ". The key body responsible for coordinating policies related to Russia's national security is the Security Council of Russia . According to provision 6 of the National Security Strategy to 2020 , national security is "the situation in which the individual, the society and the state enjoy protection from foreign and domestic threats to the degree that ensures constitutional rights and freedoms, decent quality of life for citizens, as well as sovereignty, territorial integrity and stable development of

4025-591: The " Red August " of 1966, which later spread to other areas in mainland China . Mao made use of the group as propaganda and to accomplish goals such as seizing power and destroying symbols of China's pre-communist past (" Four Olds "), including ancient artifacts and gravesites of notable Chinese figures. Moreover, the government was very permissive of the Red Guards, and even allowed the Red Guards to inflict bodily harm on people viewed as dissidents. The movement quickly grew out of control, frequently coming into conflict with authority and threatening public security until

4140-478: The CCP to preserve the existing state government and apparatus . Mao, concerned that these work teams were hindering the course of the Cultural Revolution , dispatched Chen Boda , Jiang Qing , Kang Sheng , and others to join the Red Guards and combat the work teams. In July 1966, Mao ordered the removal of the remaining work teams (against the wishes of Liu Shaoqi) and condemned their 'Fifty Days of White Terror',

4255-543: The Cultural Revolution Group reiterated calls for non-violence . On the other hand, the PLA was told to assist the Red Guards with transport and lodging, and assist in organizing rallies. By the end of 1966, most of the Cultural Revolution Group were of the opinion that the Red Guards had become a political liability. The campaign against 'capitalist roaders' had led to anarchy, the Red Guards' actions had led to conservatism amongst China's workers, and

4370-631: The Cultural Revolution in September. In Wuhan there were 62 suicides and 32 murders during the same period. Intellectuals were to suffer the brunt of these attacks. Many were ousted from official posts such as university teaching, and allocated manual tasks such as "sweeping courtyards, building walls and cleaning toilets from 7am to 5pm" which would encourage them to dwell on past "mistakes." An official report in October 1966 stated that

4485-456: The Cultural Revolution, but by then the movement's official and substantial role was over. From 1962 to 1979, 16 to 18 million youths were sent to the countryside to undergo re-education. Sending city students to the countryside was also used to defuse the student fanaticism set in motion by the Red Guards. On 22 December 1968, Chairman Mao directed the People's Daily to publish a piece entitled "We too have two hands, let us not laze about in

4600-403: The Cultural Revolution, officials in positions of authority and perceived 'bourgeois elements' were denounced and suffered physical and psychological attacks. On 22 August 1966, a central directive was issued to stop police intervention in Red Guard activities. Those in the police force who defied this notice were labeled "counter-revolutionaries." Mao's praise for rebellion effectively endorsed

4715-634: The Cultural Revolution, proving that there was no core political foundation at work. These skirmishes were often violent, with rivaling groups obtaining both assault rifles and explosives, as well as utilizing forced imprisonments and widespread torture. This domestic anarchy continued until the second half of the Cultural Revolution, when the 9th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party started civil policies. Youths from families with party-members and of revolutionary origin joined conservative factions . These factions focused on

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4830-497: The Cultural Revolution. The final remnants of the movement were defeated in Beijing in the summer of 1968. Allegedly, Mao had an audience with the Red Guard leaders, during which the Chairman informed them of himself being directly responsible for the orders to suppress them, in favor of the military's administration. After the summer of 1968 some more-radical students continued to travel across China and play an unofficial part in

4945-480: The Democracy Wall Movement include The Fifth Modernization manifesto by Wei Jingsheng , who was sentenced to fifteen years in prison for authoring the document. In it, Wei argued that political liberalization and the empowerment of the laboring masses was essential for modernization, that the CCP was controlled by reactionaries and that the people must struggle to overthrow the reactionaries via

5060-530: The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) for the practical application of the concept of the national security state : During and after World War II, U.S. leaders expanded the concept of national security, and used its terminology for the first time to explain America's relationship to the world. For most of U.S. history, the continental United States was secure. But, by 1945, it had become rapidly vulnerable with

5175-528: The National Security Council, the Committee on Foreign Intelligence, whose duty is to conduct an annual review "identifying the intelligence required to address the national security interests of the United States as specified by the President " (emphasis added). In Gen. Maxwell Taylor 's 1974 essay "The Legitimate Claims of National Security", Taylor states: The national valuables in this broad sense include current assets and national interests, as well as

5290-522: The National Security Council. The concept of national security became an official guiding principle of foreign policy in the United States when the National Security Act of 1947 was signed on July 26, 1947, by U.S. President Harry S. Truman . As amended in 1949, this Act: Notably, the Act did not define national security, which was conceivably advantageous, as its ambiguity made it

5405-452: The Party to keep the movement under control. Rival Red Guard groups led by the sons and daughters of cadres were formed by these work teams to deflect attacks from those in positions of power towards bourgeois elements in society, mainly intellectuals . In addition, these Party-backed rebel groups also attacked students with 'bad' class backgrounds, including children of former landlords and capitalists . These actions were all attempts by

5520-413: The Red Guards had already arrested 22,000 'counterrevolutionaries'. The Red Guards were also tasked with rooting out ' capitalist roaders ' (those with supposed ' right-wing ' views) in positions of authority. This search was to extend to the very highest echelons of the CCP, with many top party officials, such as Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping and Peng Dehuai , being attacked both verbally and physically by

5635-645: The Red Guards' violence, by vaguely ordering the army to 'support the left'. In August 1966, the 11th Plenum of the CCP Central Committee had ratified the 'Sixteen Articles', a document that stated the aims of the Cultural Revolution and the role students would be asked to play in the movement. After the 18 August rally, the Cultural Revolution Group directed the Red Guards to attack the ' Four Olds ' of Chinese society (i.e., old customs, old culture, old habits, and old ideas). For

5750-581: The Red Guards. Liu Shaoqi was especially targeted, as he had taken Mao's seat as State Chairman (Chinese President) following the Great Leap Forward . Although Mao stepped down from his post as a sign of accepting responsibility, he was angered that Liu could take the reins of communist China. The Red Guards were not completely unchallenged. They were not permitted to enter Zhongnanhai , the Forbidden City , or any military facility that

5865-613: The Republic of India's national security is determined by its internal stability and geopolitical interests. While Islamic upsurge in Indian State of Jammu and Kashmir demanding secession and far left-wing terrorism in India's red corridor remain some key issues in India's internal security, terrorism from Pakistan-based militant groups has been emerging as a major concern for New Delhi. The National Security Advisor of India heads

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5980-558: The Russian Federation, the defence and security of the state." Total Defence is Singapore's whole-of-society national defence concept based on the premise that the strongest defence of a nation is collective defence – when every aspect of society stays united for the defence of the country. Adopted from the national defence strategies of Sweden and Switzerland, Total Defence was introduced in Singapore in 1984. Then, it

6095-462: The UK and the US, invest in higher-cost expeditionary capabilities , which allow their armed forces to project power and sustain military operations abroad. Infrastructure security is the security provided to protect infrastructure , especially critical infrastructure , such as airports , highways , rail transport , hospitals , bridges , transport hubs , network communications, media ,

6210-534: The US, for example, the controversial USA Patriot Act of 2001, and the revelation by Edward Snowden in 2013 that the National Security Agency harvests the personal data of the general public , brought these issues to wide public attention. Among the questions raised are whether and how national security considerations at times of war should lead to the suppression of individual rights and freedoms, and whether such restrictions are necessary when

6325-504: The US, for example, the military has installed solar photovoltaic microgrids on their bases in case of power outage . The dimensions of national security outlined above are frequently in tension with one another. For example: If tensions such as these are mismanaged, national security policies and actions may be ineffective or counterproductive. Increasingly, national security strategies have begun to recognise that nations cannot provide for their own security without also developing

6440-467: The United Kingdom, and the United States are among the states to have done so. Some states also appoint a National Security Council and/or a National Security Advisor which is an executive government agency, it feeds the head of the state on topics concerning national security and strategic interest. The national security council/advisor strategies long term, short term, contingency national security plans. India holds one such system in current, which

6555-451: The United States in the following manner : A collective term encompassing both national defense and foreign relations of the United States. Specifically, the condition provided by: a. a military or defense advantage over any foreign nation or group of nations; b. a favorable foreign relations position; or c. a defense posture capable of successfully resisting hostile or destructive action from within or without, overt or covert. In 2010,

6670-516: The United States, as "the key anchor around which international order is maintained". Approaches to national security can have a complex impact on human rights and civil liberties . For example, the rights and liberties of citizens are affected by the use of military personnel and militarised police forces to control public behaviour; the use of surveillance , including mass surveillance in cyberspace , which has implications for privacy ; military recruitment and conscription practices; and

6785-765: The actions of other states , action by violent non-state actors , by narcotic cartels , organized crime , by multinational corporations , and also the effects of natural disasters . Governments rely on a range of measures, including political , economic , and military power, as well as diplomacy , to safeguard the security of a state. They may also act to build the conditions of security regionally and internationally by reducing transnational causes of insecurity, such as climate change , economic inequality , political exclusion , and nuclear proliferation . The concept of national security remains ambiguous, having evolved from simpler definitions which emphasised freedom from military threat and from political coercion. Among

6900-419: The actions of the Red Guards, which grew increasingly violent. Public security in China deteriorated rapidly as a result of central officials lifting restraints on violent behavior. Xie Fuzhi , the national police chief, said it was "no big deal" if Red Guards were beating "bad people" to death. The police relayed Xie's remarks to the Red Guards and they acted accordingly. In the course of about two weeks,

7015-520: The advent of long-range bombers, atom bombs, and ballistic missiles. A general perception grew that future mobilization would be insufficient and that preparation must be constant. For the first time, American leaders dealt with the essential paradox of national security faced by the Roman Empire and subsequent great powers: Si vis pacem, para bellum — "If you want peace, prepare for war." The U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff defines national security of

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7130-579: The branch. The Anti-Economy Liaison Headquarters dismantled economic organizations in Shanghai, investigated bank withdrawals, and disrupted regular bank service in the city. Due to the sensitive nature of this part of Chinese history, most Red Guard cemeteries were demolished prior to 2007. The Red Guard Cemetery in People's Park (人民公园) in Shapingba District , Chongqing commemorates

7245-535: The chairman, who stood for six hours. The 8-18 Rally, as it was known, was the first of eight receptions the Chairman gave to Red Guards in Tiananmen in the fall of 1966. It was this rally that signified the beginning of the Red Guards' involvement in implementing the aims of the Cultural Revolution. A second rally, held on 31 August, was led by Kang Sheng and Marshal Lin Biao also donned a red arm band. The last rally

7360-645: The chaos. The order came within months of incidents of PLA forces disobeying government and CRG orders during the summer (the most extreme case being the Wuhan incident , where the Wuhan Military Region under Chen Zaidao went further than cracking down on Red Guards to arrest the Minister of Public Security Xie Fuzhi ), the aftermath of these resulted in even more violence amongst the Red Guards, even targeting local level PLA formations, raising fears of

7475-405: The citizenry. Economic security, in the context of international relations , is the ability of a nation state to maintain and develop the national economy, without which other dimensions of national security cannot be managed. Economic capability largely determines the defence capability of a nation, and thus a sound economic security directly influences the national security of a nation. That

7590-531: The city", which quoted Mao as saying "The intellectual youth must go to the country, and be educated from living in rural poverty." In 1969 many youths were rusticated. Among the economic positions some Red Guards supported was the abolishment of interest . The majority of the workers in the Shanghai branch of the People's Bank of China were Red Guards and they formed a group called the Anti-Economy Liaison Headquarters within

7705-469: The conditions in which equitable relationships between nations can develop, partly by reducing antagonism between actors, ensuring that fundamental needs can be met, and also that differences of interest can be negotiated effectively. In the UK, for example, Malcolm Chalmers argued in 2015 that the heart of the UK's approach should be support for the Western strategic military alliance led through NATO by

7820-564: The conflict between the bureaucratic class and the people, the nature of the proposed democratic institutions was a major source of disagreement. A majority of participants in the movement favored viewed the movement as part of a struggle between correct and incorrect notions of Marxism . Many participants advocated classical Marxist views that drew on the Paris Commune for inspiration. The Democracy Wall movement also included non-Marxists and anti-Marxists, although these participants were

7935-566: The council take place in the Presidential Administration Building . The council was created by the provision of Supreme Council of Ukraine #1658-12 on October 11, 1991. It was defined as the highest state body of collegiate governing on matters of defence and security of Ukraine with the following goals: The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in the UK is the National Security Council (United Kingdom) which helps produce and enact

8050-431: The development of Red Guard factions across China. Interests of individuals, interactions with authority figures, and social interactions all altered identities to forge factions that would fight for new grievances against "the system". By February 1967, political opinion at the center had decided on the removal of the Red Guards from the Cultural Revolution scene in the interest of stability. The PLA forcibly suppressed

8165-473: The districts of Gurugram , Faridabad , and Nuh ( Mewat region), as well as interior villages of Bhiwani and Hisar . Most of them are Muslims who have acquired fake Hindu identity, and under questioning, they pretend to be from West Bengal. In September 2019, the Chief Minister of Haryana , Manohar Lal Khattar announced the implementation of NRC for Haryana by setting up a legal framework under

8280-432: The early period of the Cultural Revolution. Under this political view, the issue of a good class background was a precondition for political participation. Students whose parents had been labeled right wing elements in 1957, for example, were not admitted in groups adhering to the bloodline theory. Although it was quickly politically discredited, the bloodline theory was highly influential and contentious among Red Guards in

8395-582: The early stages of the Cultural Revolution. The primary goal of the radicals was to restructure existing political and social systems, as supposed " capitalist roaders " were corrupting the Socialist agenda. Primarily influenced by travel and a freer exchange of ideas from different regions of China, more joined the radical, rebel factions of the Red Guards by the second half of the Cultural Revolution. Some historians, such as Andrew Walder , argue that individuals and their political choices also influenced

8510-466: The effects of warfare on civilians and civil infrastructure . This has led to a dialectical struggle, particularly in liberal democracies , between government authority and the rights and freedoms of the general public. Even where the exercise of national security is subject to good governance , and the rule of law , a risk remains that the term national security may become a pretext for suppressing unfavorable political and social views . In

8625-802: The empress' corpses, along with a variety of artifacts from the tomb, were destroyed by student members of the Red Guard. During the assault on Confucius' tombs alone, more than 6,618 historic Chinese artifacts were destroyed in the desire to achieve the goals of the Cultural Revolution. Individual property was also targeted by Red Guard members if it was considered to represent one of the Four Olds. Commonly, religious texts and figures would be confiscated and burned. In other instances, items of historic importance would be left in place, but defaced, with examples such as Qin Dynasty scrolls having their writings partially removed, and stone and wood carvings having

8740-609: The event of emergence of negative trends towards the creation of potential or real threats to national interests." The primary body responsible for coordinating national security policy in Ukraine is the National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine . It is an advisory state agency to the President of Ukraine , tasked with developing a policy of national security on domestic and international matters. All sessions of

8855-439: The faces and words carved out of them. Re-education came alongside the destruction of previous culture and history; throughout the Cultural Revolution schools were a target of Red Guard groups to teach both the new ideas of the Cultural Revolution as well as to point out what ideas represented the previous era idealizing the Four Olds. For example, one student, Mo Bo, described a variety of the Red Guards activities taken to teach

8970-487: The former judge of the Punjab and Haryana High Court, Justice HS Bhalla for updating NRC which will help in weeding out these illegal immigrants. In the years 1997 and 2000, Russia adopted documents titled "National Security Concept" that described Russia's global position, the country's interests, listed threats to national security, and described the means to counter those threats. In 2009, these documents were superseded by

9085-463: The government has taken a three-pronged approach. First, dissidents who are widely known in the West such as Wei Jingsheng , Fang Lizhi , and Wang Dan are deported. Although Chinese criminal law does not contain any provisions for exiling citizens, these deportations are conducted by giving the dissident a severe jail sentence and then granting medical parole . Second, the less well-known leaders of

9200-589: The government made efforts to rein the youths in, with even Mao himself finding the leftist students to have become too radical. The Red Guard groups also suffered from in-fighting as factions developed among them. By the end of 1968, the group as a formal movement had dissolved with many of the red guards sent to rural areas and country side due to the Down to the Countryside Movement . The first students to call themselves "Red Guards" in China were from

9315-488: The group was outlawed on conspiracy and anarchism charges, followed by the arrest of most Cultural Revolution Group members (except Jiang Qing). Mao became increasingly frustrated with the Red Guards' perceived inability to cooperate, which was the ongoing cause of constant violence. This eventually led to chairman's decision to call on the PLA to reestablish order. A nationwide campaign was later launched to liquidate "May Sixteenth Elements", which created further chaos. There

9430-460: The information environment of the Cultural Revolution. A small but significant group of the Red Guard press focused on press criticism. This subset of Red Guard newspapers criticized pre-Cultural Revolution practices and proposed new modes of journalism. For example, a group of journalists from the prestigious newspaper Guangming Daily founded a rebel newspaper called Guangming Battle Bulletin (光明战报; Guangming zhanbao) in which they denounced

9545-529: The integrity of ecosystems and the biosphere , particularly in relation to their capacity to sustain a diversity of life-forms (including human life). The security of ecosystems has attracted greater attention as the impact of ecological damage by humans has grown. The degradation of ecosystems, including topsoil erosion , deforestation , biodiversity loss , and climate change , affect economic security and can precipitate mass migration , leading to increased pressure on resources elsewhere. Ecological security

9660-409: The international order is equally vital. Hence, political security depends on the rule of international law (including the laws of war ), the effectiveness of international political institutions , as well as diplomacy and negotiation between nations and other security actors. It also depends on, among other factors, effective political inclusion of disaffected groups and the human security of

9775-963: The lack of discipline and the factionalism in the movement had made the Red Guards politically dangerous. 1967 would see the decision to dispel the student movement. During the early period of the Cultural Revolution, independent publications by mass political organizations such as Red Guards grew, reaching an estimated number as high as 10,000. Publications were not uniform in style or form and ranged from mimeographed tabloids to newspapers printed with professional metal type in broadsheet format. The first Red Guard newspapers, Red Guard News (红卫兵报; Hongweibing bao ) and Red Guard (红卫兵; Hongweibing ) were published on September 1, 1966. Red Guard newspapers adopted standard journalistic practices such as publishing editorials and commentator articles, as well as reprinted articles from publications such as People's Daily . Red Guard newspapers contained many articles regarding big-character posters and their function within

9890-475: The leadership of the movement, and prevent disconnected protests from combining into a general organized protest that can threaten the CCP's hold on power. CCP leaders assert there are already elements of democracy; they dubbed the term "Chinese socialist democracy" for what they describe as a participatory representative government. Academic Lin Chun criticizes the phrase "democracy movement" as typically used in

10005-478: The major impacts of ecological changes on national security as: Resources include water, sources of energy, land, and minerals. Availability of adequate natural resources is important for a nation to develop its industry and economic power. For example, in the Persian Gulf War of 1991, Iraq captured Kuwait partly in order to secure access to its oil wells, and one reason for the US counter-invasion

10120-627: The many definitions proposed to date are the following, which show how the concept has evolved to encompass non-military concerns: Potential causes of national insecurity include actions by other states (e.g. military or cyber attack ), violent non-state actors (e.g. terrorist attack ), organised criminal groups such as narcotic cartels , and also the effects of natural disasters (e.g. flooding, earthquakes). Systemic drivers of insecurity, which may be transnational , include climate change , economic inequality and marginalisation , political exclusion , and nuclear proliferation . In view of

10235-600: The massive purge among knowledgeable and contributive CCP officials and members and CYLC members in the name of Maoism, let Red Guards replace them to inherit the party. Mao Zedong expressed personal approval and support for the Red Guards in a letter to the Tsinghua University Red Guards on 1 August 1966. During the " Red August " of Beijing , Mao gave the movement a public boost at a massive rally on 18 August at Tiananmen Square . Mao appeared atop Tiananmen wearing an olive green military uniform,

10350-548: The more radical Red Guard groups in Sichuan , Anhui , Hunan , Fujian , and Hubei provinces in February and March. Students were ordered to return to schools; student radicalism was branded 'counterrevolutionary' and banned. These groups, as well as many of their supporters, were later branded May Sixteenth elements after an ultra-left Red Guard organization based in Beijing. May Sixteenth elements (五一六分子) were named after

10465-422: The next generation what was no longer the norms. This was done according to Bo with wall posters lining the walls of schools pointing out workers who undertook "bourgeois" lifestyles. These actions inspired other students across China to join the Red Guard as well. One of these very people, Rae Yang , described how these actions inspired students. Through authority figures, such as teachers, using their positions as

10580-672: The population, freedom of speech and information security , social policy and pension provision, housing and communal services, financial services market, protection of property rights, stock markets and circulation of securities, fiscal and customs policy, trade and business, banking services, investment policy, auditing, monetary and exchange rate policy, information security, licensing, industry and agriculture, transport and communications, information technology, energy and energy saving, functioning of natural monopolies, use of subsoil , land and water resources, minerals, protection of ecology and environment and other areas of public administration, in

10695-440: The posters as a constructive criticism of Tsinghua University and Peking University's administrations, who were accused of harbouring intellectual elitism and bourgeois tendencies. Most of the early Red Guards came from the so-called " Five Red Categories ". The Red Guards were denounced as counter-revolutionaries and radicals by the school administration and by fellow students and were forced to secretly meet amongst

10810-427: The press theories of Liu Shaoqi and argued that the proletarian press should be a tool of the dictatorship of the proletariat . Rebel workers at Xinhua News Agency also published newspapers in which they commented and reported on press issues. Because of their grass roots nature and organic connection with the masses, the Red Guard press was able to exercise public oversight over the Party press. "Enveloped in

10925-460: The rest of the year, Red Guards marched across China in a campaign to eradicate the 'Four Olds'. Old books and art were destroyed, museums were ransacked , and streets were renamed with new revolutionary names, adorned with pictures and the sayings of Mao. Many famous temples, shrines, and other heritage sites in Beijing were attacked. The Cemetery of Confucius was attacked in November 1966 by

11040-487: The revolutionary ideals more ingrained in the Chinese youth, as a way to harden their spirit and combat traditional scholarly education. Chiang Kai-Shek believed Mao lost trust in CCP officials and members, Communist Youth League of China (CYLC) members, and even workers, peasants and soldiers, so he had put faith in the students, and made use of the Red Guards to preserve his authority, Chiang also believed Mao started

11155-688: The ruins of the Old Summer Palace . Nevertheless, Chairman Mao Zedong ordered that the manifesto of the Red Guards be broadcast on national radio and published in the People's Daily newspaper. This action gave the Red Guards political legitimacy , and student groups quickly began to appear across China. By the end of August 1966, almost every Chinese city and a majority of counties had Red Guard activity. Eighty-five percent of counties had local Red Guard activity by October 1966. According to sociologist Andrew G. Walder , "These figures represent

11270-401: The same time, several military commanders, oblivious to the ongoing chaos that the People's Liberation Army (PLA) had to deal with, disregarded their chain of command and attacked Red Guards whenever their bases or people were threatened. When Red Guards entered factories and other areas of production, they encountered resistance in the form of worker and peasant groups who were keen to maintain

11385-510: The scholarly and media discourse on China, noting that the term is often used exclusively to refer to the "demands and activism of an urban, educated group of people seeking liberal more than democratic values." She notes, for example, that the political turbulence in universities over the period 1986 to 1989 had specific flash points ranging from anger at the government's "too soft" position on China–Japan relations to poor management of student welfare. Red Guards The Red Guards were

11500-512: The security of computing devices such as computers and smartphones, as well as computer networks such as private and public networks, and the Internet . It concerns the protection of hardware, software, data, people, and also the procedures by which systems are accessed, and the field has growing importance due to the increasing reliance on computer systems in most societies. Since unauthorized access to critical civil and military infrastructure

11615-537: The security of their regional and international context. For example, Sweden's national security strategy of 2017 declared: "Wider security measures must also now encompass protection against epidemics and infectious diseases, combating terrorism and organised crime, ensuring safe transport and reliable food supplies, protecting against energy supply interruptions, countering devastating climate change, initiatives for peace and global development, and much more." The extent to which this matters, and how it should be done,

11730-406: The so-called May Sixteenth Army Corps (五一六兵团; 1967–1968), ultra-left Red Guards in Beijing during the early years of the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) who targeted Zhou Enlai with the backing of Jiang Qing. The name came from the historic May 16 Notice (五一六通知) which Mao Zedong partially wrote and edited, which triggered the revolution. However, Mao was concerned with its radicalism, so in late 1967

11845-409: The socio-political status quo, keeping within their localities and working to challenge existing distributions of power and privilege. Those from the countryside and without ties to the CCP often joined radical groups who sought to change and uproot local government leadership. Among the disputes between Red Guard factions was the bloodline theory advocated by most conservative Red Guard groups in

11960-451: The sources of strength upon which our future as a nation depends. Some valuables are tangible and earthy; others are spiritual or intellectual. They range widely from political assets such as the Bill of Rights, our political institutions, and international friendships to many economic assets which radiate worldwide from a highly productive domestic economy supported by rich natural resources. It

12075-417: The type favored by Red Guards, but which he had not worn in many years. He personally greeted 1,500 Red Guards and waved to 800,000 Red Guards and onlookers below. The rally was led by Chen Boda and Lin Biao gave a keynote speech . Red Guard leaders, led by Nie Yuanzi, also gave speeches. A high school Red Guard leader, Song Binbin , placed a red armband inscribed with the characters for "Red Guard" on

12190-531: The violence left some 100 teachers, school officials, and educated cadres dead in Beijing's western district alone. The number injured was "too large to be calculated." The most gruesome aspects of the campaign included numerous incidents of torture, murder, and public humiliation. Many people who were targets of 'struggle' could no longer bear the stress and committed suicide . In August and September 1966, there were 1,772 people murdered in Beijing alone. In Shanghai there were 704 suicides and 534 deaths related to

12305-429: The wide range of risks, the security of a state has several dimensions, including economic security , energy security , physical security , environmental security , food security , border security , and cyber security . These dimensions correlate closely with elements of national power . Increasingly, governments organise their security policies into a national security strategy (NSS); as of 2017, Spain, Sweden,

12420-575: Was a wide backlash in the spring against the suppression, with student attacks on any symbol of authority and PLA units, but not on Marshal Lin Biao, the Minister of National Defense and one of the Chairman's biggest allies. An order from Mao, the Cultural Revolution Group, the State Council, and the Central Military Affairs Committee of the PLA on 5 September 1967 instructed the PLA to restore order to China and end

12535-433: Was an effort to focus on the personal behavior of individual dissidents and argue that they were tools of foreign powers. In the mid-1990s, the government began using more effective arguments which were influenced by Chinese Neo-Conservatism and Western authors such as Edmund Burke . The main argument was that China's main priority was economic growth , and economic growth required political stability. The democracy movement

12650-655: Was established on 19 November 1998. Although states differ in their approach, various forms of coercive power predominate, particularly military capabilities . The scope of these capabilities has developed. Traditionally, military capabilities were mainly land- or sea-based, and in smaller countries, they still are. Elsewhere, the domains of potential warfare now include the air , space , cyberspace , and psychological operations . Military capabilities designed for these domains may be used for national security, or equally for offensive purposes, for example to conquer and annex territory and resources. In practice, national security

12765-470: Was flawed because it promoted radicalism and revolution which put the gains that China had made into jeopardy. In contrast to Wei's argument that democracy was essential to economic growth , the government argued that economic growth must come before political liberalization, comparable to what happened in the Four Asian Tigers . With regard to political dissent engendered by the movement,

12880-414: Was held on 26 November 1966. In all, the Chairman greeted eleven to twelve million Red Guards, most of whom traveled from afar to attend the rallies including one held on National Day 1966, which included the usual civil-military parade. During Red August, large number of members of " Five Black Categories " were persecuted and even killed. Mao had originally instructed the PLA to not interfere against

12995-403: Was recognised that military threats to a nation can affect the psyche and social fabric of its people. Therefore, the defence and progress of Singapore are dependent on all of its citizens' resolve, along with the government and armed forces. Total Defence has since evolved to take into consideration threats and challenges outside of the conventional military domain. National security of Ukraine

13110-425: Was tasked with classified information (i.e. special intelligence , Nuclear Weapons development). Several times, Red Guards attempted to storm Zhongnanhai and the 8341 Special Regiment , which was responsible for Mao's security, fired upon them. Jiang Qing promoted the idea that the Red Guards should "crush the PLA," with Lin Biao seemingly supportive of her plans (e.g., permitting Red Guards to loot barracks). At

13225-564: Was the value of the same wells to its own economy. Water resources are subject to disputes between many nations, including India and Pakistan , and in the Middle East . The interrelations between security, energy, natural resources, and their sustainability is increasingly acknowledged in national security strategies and resource security is now included among the UN Sustainable Development Goals . In

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