102-523: Arms [REDACTED] General Zhang Youxia The People's Liberation Army ( PLA ) is the military of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the People's Republic of China . It consists of four services — Ground Force , Navy , Air Force , and Rocket Force —and four arms— Aerospace Force , Cyberspace Force , Information Support Force , and Joint Logistics Support Force . It
204-522: A corresponding rank system. This can lead to different translations being used depending on the system chosen for the correspondences. The 1955–1965 system, with its greater number of officer ranks, is usually translated using the Soviet rank system of that era, while the modern officer ranks are usually given a NATO rank correspondence. For example, the non-literal translation used for the rank of Shang Jiang (literally "senior general") depends on whether one
306-611: A defense of the islands by Japan would require the United States to come to Japan's aid. In September 2012, the Japanese government purchased three of the disputed islands from their private owner, prompting large-scale protests in China. As of early February 2013, the situation has been regarded as "the most serious for Sino-Japanese relations in the post-war period in terms of the risk of militarized conflict." The PRC claims
408-589: A humanitarian and medical training practice conducted in Gabon. For the past 10 to 20 years, the PLA has acquired some advanced weapons systems from Russia, including Sovremenny class destroyers , Sukhoi Su-27 and Sukhoi Su-30 aircraft, and Kilo-class diesel-electric submarines. It has also started to produce several new classes of destroyers and frigates including the Type 052D class guided-missile destroyer. In addition,
510-648: A line demarcated by the 1914 Simla Convention between the United Kingdom and the Tibetan government. The Simla Convention was never accepted by the Chinese government, and it was also considered invalid by Tibetans due to unmet conditions specified in the treaty. The boundary was not broadly enforced by the Indian government until 1950. Currently, this territory is administered by India. China and Japan have
612-673: A major threat, and the new threats to China are seen to be a declaration of independence by Taiwan , possibly with assistance from the United States, or a confrontation over the Spratly Islands . In 1985, under the leadership of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party and the CMC, the PLA changed from being constantly prepared to "hit early, strike hard and to fight a nuclear war" to developing
714-791: A member of the CMC. Previously, the PLA was governed by four general departments; the General Political, the General Logistics, the General Armament, and the General Staff Departments. These were abolished in 2016 under the military reforms undertaken by Xi Jinping, replaced with 15 new functional departments directly reporting to the CMC: Included among the 15 departments are three commissions. The CMC Discipline Inspection Commission
816-575: A proposed boundary, the McMahon Line , by Great Britain during the 1913-1914 Simla Convention . The Republic of China rejected the proposed boundary. The unresolved dispute over the boundary became contentious after India gained its independence and the People's Republic of China was established. The disputed borders are complicated by the lack of administrative presence in the disputed areas, which are remote. India claims Aksai Chin , which
918-520: A reduced role in political affairs and limited budgets; the military was downsized to free resources for economic development . The lack of oversight, ineffective self-regulation, and Jiang Zemin 's and Hu Jintao 's lack of close personal ties to the PLA, led to systemic corruption that persisted through the late-2010s. Jiang's attempt to divest the PLA of its commercial interests was only partly successful as many were still run by close associates of PLA officers. Corruption lowered readiness and proficiency,
1020-720: A rotational basis to combat the Ebola virus outbreak in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau. As of 2023, this was the PLA's largest medical assistance mission in another country. China re-organized its military from 2015 to 2016 . In 2015, the PLA formed new units including the PLA Ground Force, the PLA Rocket Force and the PLA Strategic Support Force. In 2016, the CMC replaced
1122-406: A single body. The only difference in membership between the two occurs for a few months every five years, during the period between a Party National Congress , when Party CMC membership changes, and the next ensuing National People's Congress, when the state CMC changes. The CMC is composed of a chairman , vice chairpersons and regular members. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of
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#17327650348881224-807: A system of ranks was established. As a result of the Cultural Revolution , ranks were abolished in May 1965 (this led to a similar reform in Albania in the midst of the Albanian Cultural and Ideological Revolution ). After the Sino-Vietnamese War of 1979, reforms in the PLA began to be made to professionalize the armed forces once more. The 1984 Military Service Law provided for the resumption of rank, but disagreements on what ranks were to be used and who would receive them caused
1326-635: A territorial claim on parts of Bhutan to this day. The territorial claim was maintained by the People's Republic of China after the Chinese Communist Party took control of mainland China in the Chinese Civil War . The 1959 Tibetan Rebellion and the 14th Dalai Lama 's arrival in neighboring India made the security of Bhutan's border with China a necessity for Bhutan. An estimated 6,000 Tibetans fled to Bhutan and were granted asylum , although Bhutan subsequently closed its border to China, fearing more refugees to come. In July 1959, along with
1428-722: A territorial dispute over a group of uninhabited islands known as the Senkaku Islands in Japan , the Diaoyu Islands in the People's Republic of China (PRC), and Tiaoyutai Islands in the Republic of China (ROC or Taiwan). Aside from a 1945 to 1972 period of administration by the United States as part of the Ryukyu Islands , the archipelago has been controlled by Japan since 1895. According to Lee Seokwoo ,
1530-654: A wider movement against the ex-President Askar Akayev culminating in the Tulip Revolution . The border agreement was finalized in 2009, with China giving up part of the Khan Tengri Peak while Kyrgyzstan ceded the Uzengi-Kush, a mountainous area located south of the Issyk Kul region. Laos obtained a partial independence from France in 1949, around the time when the People's Republic of China
1632-402: Is a state of India created on 20 January 1972, located in the far northeast. It borders the states of Assam and Nagaland to the south, and shares international borders with Burma in the east, Bhutan in the west, and China in the north. The majority of the territory is claimed by China, by whom it is called South Tibet . The northern border of Arunachal Pradesh reflects the McMahon Line ,
1734-671: Is administered by China. During the 1950s, the People's Republic of China built a 1,200 km (750 mi) road connecting Xinjiang and western Tibet , of which 179 km (112 mi) ran south of the Johnson Line through the Aksai Chin region claimed by India. Aksai Chin was easily accessible to the Chinese, but was more difficult for the Indians on the other side of the Karakorams to reach. The Indians did not learn of
1836-651: Is charged with rooting out corruption. The CCP maintains absolute control over the PLA. It requires the PLA to undergo political education, instilling CCP ideology in its members. Additionally, China maintains a political commissar system. Regiment-level and higher units maintain CCP committees and political commissars ( Chinese : 政治委员 or 政委 ). Additionally, battalion-level and company-level units respectively maintain political directors and political instructors. The political workers are officially equal to commanders in status. The political workers are officially responsible for
1938-422: Is comparing it to Soviet or Russian ranks ( colonel general ) or to British or U.S. ranks (general). The current system of other ranks and insignia dates from 2022. Unlike NATO countries, new recruits of the People's Liberation Army have no military ranks before the boot camp is completed, and they will be awarded the rank of Private/Seaman Apprentice/Airman (All collectively called "Private" or "Lie Bing" in
2040-852: Is led by the Central Military Commission (CMC) with its chairman as commander-in-chief . The PLA can trace its origins during the Republican Era to the left-wing units of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA) of the Kuomintang (KMT) when they broke away in 1927 in an uprising against the nationalist government as the Chinese Red Army , before being reintegrated into the NRA as units of New Fourth Army and Eighth Route Army during
2142-415: Is the PLA's interface with state and foreign entities and insulates the PLA from external influence. Today, the majority of military units around the country are assigned to one of five theatre commands by geographical location. The PLA is the world's largest military force (not including paramilitary or reserve forces ) and has the second largest defence budget in the world. China's military expenditure
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#17327650348882244-471: The 1991 Sino-Soviet Border Agreement , which intended to start the process of resolving the border disputes held in abeyance since the 1960s. However, just a few months later the USSR was dissolved , and four former Soviet republics — Russia, Kazakhstan , Kyrgyzstan , and Tajikistan — inherited various sections of the former Sino–Soviet border. It took more than a decade for Russia and China to fully resolve
2346-547: The Burma Road was constructed across the border as an Allied supply line to Chinese forces fighting Japan . Additionally in 1941, following Japan's invasion of Burma, parts of Burma were ceded to Siam as the Saharat Thai Doem territory, thereby giving China a common border with Thailand, however these areas were returned to Burma in 1946 following Japan's defeat. Discussions between Burma and China over
2448-741: The Chinese language ) after they have graduated from the boot camp . According to Article 16 of Chapter 3 of the "Regulations on the Service of Active Soldiers of the Chinese People's Liberation Army" ( Chinese : 中国人民解放军现役士兵服役条例 ), "The lowest enlisted rank is Private ". On February 27, 2022, the National People's Congress approved a new regulation which changes the previous Master sergeant fourth class(Chinese: 四级军士长) to Staff sergeant first class(Chinese: 一级上士). The ranks of
2550-882: The Jinan Military Region (1958–74), Chen Xilian in the Shenyang Military Region (1959–73), and Han Xianchu in the Fuzhou Military Region (1960–74). In the early days of the Cultural Revolution, the PLA abandoned the use of the military ranks that it had adopted in 1955. The establishment of a professional military force equipped with modern weapons and doctrine was the last of the Four Modernizations announced by Zhou Enlai and supported by Deng Xiaoping . In keeping with Deng's mandate to reform,
2652-758: The Long March . During the Second Sino-Japanese War from 1937 to 1945, the CCP's military forces were nominally integrated into the National Revolutionary Army of the Republic of China forming two main units, the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army . During this time, these two military groups primarily employed guerrilla tactics , generally avoiding large-scale battles with the Japanese, at
2754-596: The National Revolutionary Army rebelled under the leadership of Zhu De , He Long , Ye Jianying , Zhou Enlai , and other leftist elements of the Kuomintang (KMT), after the Shanghai massacre in 1927. They were then known as the Chinese Workers' and Peasants' Red Army , or simply the Red Army. In 1934 and 1935, the Red Army survived several campaigns led against it by Chiang Kai-Shek 's KMT and engaged in
2856-517: The Second Sino-Japanese War . The two NRA communist units were reconstituted as the PLA in 1947. Since 1949, the PLA has used nine different military strategies, which it calls "strategic guidelines". The most important came in 1956, 1980, and 1993. Politically, the PLA and the paramilitary People's Armed Police (PAP) have the largest delegation in the National People's Congress (NPC); the joint delegation currently has 281 deputies—over 9% of
2958-822: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan by supporting the Afghan mujahidin and ramping up their military presence near Afghanistan in Xinjiang. China acquired military equipment from the United States to defend itself from Soviet attacks. The PLA Ground Force trained and supported the Afghan Mujahideen during the Soviet-Afghan War, moving its training camps for the mujahideen from Pakistan into China itself. Hundreds of millions of dollars worth of anti-aircraft missiles, rocket launchers, and machine guns were given to
3060-462: The de jure administration of Taiwan Province , as well as mainland-nearby islands of Kinmen and Matsu Islands , currently controlled by the Republic of China (ROC). However, despite the diplomatic stalemate between the governments in Beijing and Taipei, both governments agree on many of the same territorial disputes, namely the Senkaku Islands and the 9-dash line , or the eleven-dash line in
3162-531: The dissolution of the Soviet Union inherited the border disagreements with China, which had themselves been inherited from Tsarist Russia and the Qing dynasty. China negotiated bilaterally to resolve its borders with these conflicts. Ultimately, China obtained Central Asian territory significantly less than what it had originally claimed. Resolution of these disputes on territorial terms generally favorable to
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3264-493: The 18th and 19th centuries, however they were often vague or contradictory. After the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the Chinese and Nepalese governments signed three border agreements in 1960, 1961 and 1963. A Joint Commission was created to define and demarcate the border. Nepali opposition claims Nepal and China have an ongoing border dispute over the territory along the Himalayan border. However, both of
3366-465: The 1955 to 1965 system was not included in the revived ranks. The final difference between the two systems is that in 1955 to 1965 there existed a warrant officer rank, Zhun Wei , which was not incorporated in the revived rank system, while new system had a rank for officer cadets , Xue Yuan . Despite being the rank below Shao Wei in both systems, the insignia have no similarities. Officer rank names are usually not translated literally, but rather to
3468-588: The 1970s. The PRC and the ROC argue that documentary evidence prior to the First Sino-Japanese War indicates Chinese possession and that the territory is accordingly a Japanese seizure that should be returned as the rest of Imperial Japan 's conquests were returned in 1945. The islands are included within the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan , meaning that
3570-508: The 1998 agreement, has provoked tensions. In 2002, however, China presented what it claimed to be 'evidence', asserting its ownership of disputed tracts of land; after negotiations, an interim agreement was reached. On 11 August 2016 Bhutan Foreign Minister Damcho Dorji visited Beijing, capital of China, for the 24th round of boundary talks with Chinese Vice President Li Yuanchao. Both sides made comments to show their readiness to strengthen co-operations in various fields and hope of settling
3672-616: The 19th century the British, based in India, began occupying Myanmar (then referred to as Burma), gradually incorporating it into British India . Their advance close to lands traditionally claimed by China pushed the two sides into negotiating a boundary treaty in 1894, which covered the southern half of the boundary as far north as the vicinity of Myitkyina , exclusive of the Wa States . Sections of this border were demarcated and marked on
3774-536: The Central Asian countries created goodwill for China, avoided conflict, and also resulted in recognition that the czarist era borders were imposed unjustly on China. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan became an independent country, and around 2,420 square kilometers of land was disputed with China. A border treaty between the two nations was signed in Almaty on April 26, 1994, and ratified by
3876-714: The Chinese National People's Congress and the Russian State Duma in 2005, thus ending the decades-long border dispute. The official transfer ceremony was held on-site on October 14, 2008. However, in China Standard Map Edition 2023, Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island has been speculated by some journalists to be asserted as Chinese territory by China. China had a longstanding territorial claim on about 28,430 square kilometers (10.977 square miles) of Tajik territory since 1884, which
3978-532: The Chinese armed forces . A goal of the RMA is to transform the PLA into a force capable of winning what it calls "local wars under high-tech conditions" rather than a massive, numbers-dominated ground-type war. Chinese military planners call for short decisive campaigns, limited in both their geographic scope and their political goals. In contrast to the past, more attention is given to reconnaissance , mobility, and deep reach. This new vision has shifted resources towards
4080-561: The Chinese leadership with a stark realization that the PLA was an oversized, almost-obsolete force. The USA's sending of two aircraft carrier groups to the vicinity of Taiwan during the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis prompted Jiang to order a ten-year PLA modernization program. The possibility of a militarized Japan has also been a continuous concern to the Chinese leadership since the late 1990s. In addition, China's military leadership has been reacting to and learning from
4182-539: The Cultural Revolution. Territorial disputes of the People%27s Republic of China This article is about territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China (PRC). A territorial dispute is a disagreement over the possession or control of land between two or more political entities. Many of China's territorial disputes result from the historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and
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4284-464: The Kazakh president on June 15, 1995. China received around 22% of the total disputed territory, and Kazakhstan received the remaining 78%. When Kyrgyzstan became independent in 1991 after the Soviet Union's dissolution, it inherited a section of the USSR-China frontier. The two countries delimited their border in 1996. Formal demarcation was hampered by opposition to the border treaty by the Kyrgyz opposition, centred on Azimbek Beknazarov , as part of
4386-627: The Mujahideen by the Chinese. Chinese military advisors and army troops were also present with the Mujahideen during training. In 1981, the PLA conducted its largest military exercise in North China since the founding of the People's Republic. In the late 1980s, the central government had increasing expenditures and limited revenue. The central government encouraged its agencies and encouraged local governments to expand their services and pursue revenues. The PLA established businesses including hotels and restaurants. The PLA gained more autonomy and permission to engage in commercial activities in exchange for
4488-643: The Ninth Five Year Plan (1996–2000) the PLA was reduced by a further 500,000. The PLA had also been expected to be reduced by another 200,000 by 2005. The PLA has focused on increasing mechanization and informatization to be able to fight a high-intensity war. Former CMC chairman Jiang in 1990 called on the military to "meet political standards, be militarily competent, have a good working style, adhere strictly to discipline, and provide vigorous logistic support" ( Chinese : 政治合格、军事过硬、作风优良、纪律严明、保障有力 ; pinyin : zhèngzhì hégé, jūnshì guòyìng, zuòfēng yōuliáng, jìlǜ yánmíng, bǎozhàng yǒulì ). The 1991 Gulf War provided
4590-401: The PAP, the reserves, and the militia . The armed forces are controlled by the CCP under the doctrine of " the Party must always control the gun ".( Chinese : 党指挥枪 ; pinyin : Dǎng zhǐhuī qiāng ) The PLA and the PAP have the largest delegation in the National People's Congress (NPC), which are elected by servicemember election committees of top-level military subdivisions, including
4692-447: The PLA has demobilized millions of men and women since 1978 and has introduced modern methods in such areas as recruitment and manpower, strategy , and education and training . In 1979, the PLA fought Vietnam over a border skirmish in the Sino-Vietnamese War where both sides claimed victory. However, western analysts agree that Vietnam handily outperformed the PLA. During the Sino-Soviet split , strained relations between China and
4794-464: The PLA operates a base in Tajikistan and a listening station in Cuba. The Espacio Lejano Station in Argentina is operated by a unit of a PLA. The PLAN has also undertaken rotational deployments of its warships at the Ream Naval Base in Cambodia. The People's Republic of China has sent the PLA to various hotspots as part of China's role as a prominent member of the United Nations. Such units usually include engineers and logistical units and members of
4896-424: The PLA under the name of the People's Volunteer Army intervened in the Korean War as United Nations forces under General Douglas MacArthur approached the Yalu River . Under the weight of this offensive, Chinese forces drove MacArthur's forces out of North Korea and captured Seoul , but were subsequently pushed back south of Pyongyang north of the 38th Parallel . The war also catalyzed the rapid modernization of
4998-414: The PLA's primary objectives, although the armed forces' political loyalty to the CCP has remained a leading concern. Beginning in the 1980s, the PLA tried to transform itself from a land-based power centered on a vast ground force to a smaller, more mobile, high-tech one capable of mounting operations beyond its borders. The motivation for this was that a massive land invasion by Russia was no longer seen as
5100-448: The PLA's theater commands and service branches. At the 14th National People's Congress ; the joint delegation has 281 deputies—over 9% of the total—all of whom are CCP members. The PLA is governed by the Central Military Commission (CMC); under the arrangement of " one institution with two names ", there exists a state CMC and a Party CMC, although both commissions have identical personnel, organization and function, and effectively work as
5202-405: The PLA, with the post generally held by the paramount leader of China; since 1989, the post has generally been held together with the CCP general secretary . Unlike in other countries, the Ministry of National Defense and its Minister do not have command authority, largely acting as diplomatic liaisons of the CMC, insulating the PLA from external influence. However, the Minister has always been
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#17327650348885304-419: The PLA. In 2004, paramount leader Hu Jintao stated the mission of the PLA as: China describes its military posture as active defense , defined in a 2015 state white paper as "We will not attack unless we are attacked, but we will surely counterattack if attacked." The CCP founded its military wing on 1 August 1927 during the Nanchang uprising , beginning the Chinese Civil War . Communist elements of
5406-418: The PLAAF has designed its very own Chengdu J-10 fighter aircraft and a new stealth fighter, the Chengdu J-20 . The PLA launched the new Jin class nuclear submarines on 3 December 2004 capable of launching nuclear warheads that could strike targets across the Pacific Ocean and have three aircraft carriers, with the latest, the Fujian, launched in 2022. From 2014 to 2015, the PLA deployed 524 medical staff on
5508-437: The PLAAF. In 1962, the PLA ground force also fought India in the Sino-Indian War . In a series of border clashes in 1967 with Indian troops, the PLA suffered heavy numerical and tactical losses. Before the Cultural Revolution , military region commanders tended to remain in their posts for long periods. The longest-serving military region commanders were Xu Shiyou in the Nanjing Military Region (1954–74), Yang Dezhi in
5610-428: The People's Liberation Army Air Force generally has the same names, position and ranks as the People's Liberation Army Ground Force , and their insignia correspond except Air Force ranks are on a light blue background instead of green. Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Navy also have corresponding insignia with a black background, but are only worn with the dress white uniforms, as only sleeve insignia are used in
5712-551: The People's Republic of China (PRC) started taking up the question of sovereignty over the islands in the latter half of 1970 when evidence relating to the existence of oil reserves surfaced. The ROC also claims the islands. The territory is close to key shipping lanes and rich fishing grounds , and there may be oil reserves in the area. Japan argues that it surveyed the islands in the late 19th century and found them to be terra nullius (Latin: land belonging to no one); subsequently, China acquiesced to Japanese sovereignty until
5814-446: The Soviet Union and asked for the deployment of Soviet forces, leading to security concerns in China. As a result, bilateral ties remained tense until 1984, when a high-level Chinese delegation visited Mongolia and both nations began to survey and demarcate their borders. Mongolian General Secretary Jambyn Batmönkh , during a meeting with President Kim Il sung while on a state visit to Pyongyang in November 1986 states that "renewing
5916-484: The Soviet Union resulted in bloody border clashes and mutual backing of each other's adversaries. China and Afghanistan had neutral relations with each other during the King's rule. When the pro-Soviet Afghan Communists seized power in Afghanistan in 1978, relations between China and the Afghan communists quickly turned hostile. The Afghan pro-Soviet communists supported China's enemies in Vietnam and blamed China for supporting Afghan anticommunist militants. China responded to
6018-438: The activity of other claimants, China increased its physical presence in the area. It conducted surveys around the Paracels and the People's Liberation Army Navy built a harbor and wharf on Wood Island (in the Paracels) in 1971. In 1974, China and South Vietnam fought the Battle of the Paracel Islands . China took a defensive posture, directing its forces "not to fire the first shot; fight back when attacked". The battle
6120-463: The addition of semi-circular wreath at the bottom of the insignia and by a change in the name of the highest general officer rank from da jiang ( 4-star General) to yi ji shang jiang (4-star first class colonel general). This highest rank in the new system was never held and was abolished in 1994. The field officer ( Xiao ) and company officer ( Wei ) ranks were the same in title and insignia except that highest company-level officer rank of Da Wei in
6222-402: The armed forces. This is particularly visible in maritime territorial disputes where the navy is heavily involved in the planning, coordination and execution of operations by the PAP's China Coast Guard . The PLA's primary mission is the defense of the CCP and its interests. It is the guarantor of the party's survival and rule, and the party prioritizes maintaining control and the loyalty of
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#17327650348886324-464: The big anniversary it mounted its biggest parade yet and the first outside of Beijing, held in the Zhurihe Training Base in the Northern Theater Command (within the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region). In December 2023, Reuters reported a military leadership purge after high-ranking generals were ousted from the National People's Congress . Prior to 2017, over sixty generals were investigated and sacked. In addition to its Support Base in Djibouti ,
6426-407: The border began in 1954, with China keen to control the area more effectively as it was being used as a base by Kuomintang troops. On 28 January 1960 a treaty was signed which delimited most of the border, which was later completed with a full delimitation treaty signed on 1 October 1960, with both sides ceding small areas along the border. The two sides then demarcated the border on the ground in
6528-417: The border dispute. In 1998, China and Bhutan signed a bilateral agreement for maintaining peace on the border. In the agreement, China affirmed its respect for Bhutan's sovereignty and territorial integrity and both sides sought to build ties based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Co-existence . However, China's building of roads on what Bhutan asserts to be Bhutanese territory, allegedly in violation of
6630-403: The border issues and to demarcate the border. On May 29, 1994, during Russian Prime Minister Chernomyrdin 's visit to Beijing, an "Agreement on the Sino-Russian Border Management System intended to facilitate border trade and hinder criminal activity" was signed. On September 3, a demarcation agreement was signed for the short (55 kilometres (34 mi)) western section of the binational border;
6732-418: The boundary issues. In 2024, The New York Times reported that, according to satellite imagery , China had constructed villages inside of disputed territory within Bhutan. Chinese individuals, called "border guardians," received annual subsidies to relocate to newly built villages and paid to conduct border patrols. China and India have various territorial disputes. There was one historical attempt to set
6834-444: The case of the ROC. China and Vietnam have an ongoing territorial dispute over the Paracel Islands . The islands are claimed by Vietnam but administered by China. The PRC and ROC claimed sovereignty over an area surrounding shoals and islands in the South China Sea, as well as a historical right over the area within the nine-dash line . In 1932, China sent a Note Verbale to France , declaring that China's southernmost territory
6936-411: The country. During the 1950s, the PLA with Soviet assistance began to transform itself from a peasant army into a modern one. Since 1949, China has used nine different military strategies, which the PLA calls "strategic guidelines". The most important came in 1956, 1980, and 1993. Part of this process was the reorganization that created thirteen military regions in 1955. In November 1950, some units of
7038-433: The current governments of China and Nepal deny the accusation. China and North Korea share a 1,416 km long land border that corresponds almost entirely to the course of the Yalu and Tumen rivers. The two countries signed a border treaty in 1962 to resolve their un-demarcated land border. China received 40% of the disputed crater lake on Paektu Mountain (known as Changbai Mountain in China), while North Korea held
7140-528: The demarcation of this section was completed in 1998. The last unresolved territorial issue between the two countries was settled by the 2004 Complementary Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China–Russia Boundary. Pursuant to that agreement, Russia transferred to China a part of Abagaitu Islet , the entire Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island , about half of Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island , and some adjacent river islets. The transfer has been ratified by both
7242-418: The development of Sino-Mongolian relations is important for our two countries’ people's common interest". In 1986, a series of agreements to bolster trade and establish transport and air links was signed. The boundary area between China and Burma (Myanmar) is inhabited by non-Han and non-Burmese peoples, and has been traditionally kept as a buffer region between the various Chinese and Burmese empires. During
7344-461: The dispute was "more of a dampener than a driver of nationalistic policy preference." China was generally generous in resolving disputes with its southwest neighbors. According to academic Swaran Singh, China's generosity was likely motivated by the security concern of reducing foreign support for disgruntled groups within China's southwest border . In Central Asia, the newly independent following
7446-480: The dress blue uniform for officers, with other ranks retaining the shoulder board insignia. The PLA adopted ranks in 1955. The insignia used by officers from 1955 to 1965 by the PLA Ground Force were modelled on those used by the Soviet Army at the time and similar to the earlier Imperial Japanese Army on collar insignia, with the primary differences being the existence of an additional field officer rank, and
7548-457: The early PLA overturned strict traditional hierarchies that governed the lives of peasants. As sociologist Alessandro Russo summarizes, the peasant composition of the PLA hierarchy was a radical break with Chinese societal norms and "overturned the strict traditional hierarchies in unprecedented forms of egalitarianism[.]" In the PRC's early years, the PLA was a dominant foreign policy institution in
7650-448: The existence of the road until 1957, which was confirmed when the road was shown in Chinese maps published in 1958. The Depsang Plains are located on the border of the Indian union territory of Ladakh and the disputed zone of Aksai Chin. The People's Liberation Army occupied most of the plains during its 1962 war with India , while India controls the western portion of the plains. The dispute remains unresolved. Arunachal Pradesh
7752-472: The fact that China is a signatory to the 2006 UNCLOS exclusion clause which removes sovereignty and boundary delimitations issues from arbitration procedures. Because China did not participate, the arbitrators based their view of the Chinese position on China's 2014 white paper and letters sent to the tribunal from China's ambassador to the Netherlands . In 2016, the nine-dash line created by China
7854-514: The following year. Since then relations between the two states have remained largely cordial, though the border region has at times been volatile owing to the ongoing insurgencies in Myanmar's Kachin and Shan states. In recent years several towns along the border, such as Mong La , Ruili and Muse , have become centers of gambling, prostitution and drug smuggling. Several treaties were negotiated between Nepal and Tibet ( Qing China ) in
7956-501: The four traditional military departments with a number of new bodies. China replaced its system of seven military regions with newly established Theater Commands: Northern , Southern , Western , Eastern , and Central . In the prior system, operations were segmented by military branch and region. In contrast, each Theater Command is intended to function as a unified entity with joint operations across different military branches. The PLA on 1 August 2017 marked its 90th anniversary. Before
8058-539: The ground from 1897 to 1900. In 1941 a border running through the Wa States area was agreed upon following on-the-ground surveys conducted in the 1930s, though no agreement on the northern stretch was reached, with China claiming much of what is now northern Myanmar. Meanwhile, Burma was separated from India and became a separate colony in 1937, gaining full independence in 1948. During the Second World War
8160-613: The implementation of party committee decisions, instilling and maintaining party discipline, providing political education, and working with other components of the political work system. Ranks of the People%27s Liberation Army Ground Force The People's Liberation Army (PLA) has not always used ranks or insignia. In common with the practice of the Red Army at the time of its founding in 1927, neither were used until 1955 when
8262-554: The insignia of the highest general officer rank being four stars unlike the one large star used by the Soviet Armed Forces starting in 1963. The NCO insignia of that period showed Japanese influence with the use of stars on the collars with the specialty badge on the side. While general duties officers wore the shoulder board pattern shown below (gold and red), technical service officers sported white and red shoulder boards with their rank insignia. Ranks were abolished during
8364-473: The lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. China's claims to disputed maritime territories date from prior to the founding of the People's Republic of China. Bhutan has long had strong cultural, historical, religious and economic connections to Tibet . Bhutan's border with Tibet has never been officially recognized, much less demarcated. The Republic of China based in Taiwan officially maintains
8466-501: The lack of clear historical boundary demarcations. Many of these disputes are almost identical to those that the Republic of China (ROC) based in Taipei , also known as Taiwan, has with other countries. Therefore, many of the subsequent resolved disputes made by the PRC after 1949 with other governments may not be recognized by the ROC. Many of China's territorial disputes result from the historical consequences of colonialism in Asia and
8568-425: The military in an era of peace. The PLA reoriented itself to modernization, improving its fighting ability, and becoming a world-class force. Deng Xiaoping stressed that the PLA needed to focus more on quality rather than on quantity. The decision of the Chinese government in 1985 to reduce the size of the military by one million was completed by 1987. Staffing in military leadership was cut by about 50 percent. During
8670-493: The navy and air force. The PLA is also actively preparing for space warfare and cyber-warfare . In 2002, the PLA began holding military exercises with militaries from other countries. From 2018 to 2023, more than half of these exercises have focused on military training other than war, generally antipiracy or antiterrorism exercises involving combatting non-state actors. In 2009, the PLA held its first military exercise in Africa,
8772-812: The occupation of Tibet, the Chinese People's Liberation Army occupied several Bhutanese exclaves in western Tibet which were under Bhutanese administration for more than 300 years and had been given to Bhutan by Ngawang Namgyal in the 17th century. These included Darchen , Labrang Monastery , Gartok and several smaller monasteries and villages near Mount Kailas . In 1983, the Chinese Foreign Minister Wu Xueqian and Bhutanese Foreign Minister Dawa Tsering held talks on establishing bilateral relations in New York. In 1984, China and Bhutan began annual, direct talks over
8874-521: The paramilitary People's Armed Police and have been deployed as part of peacekeeping operations in Lebanon , the Republic of the Congo , Sudan , Ivory Coast , Haiti , and more recently, Mali and South Sudan . As of at least early 2024, China has not fought a war since 1979 and has only fought relatively minor conflicts since. The PLA is a component of the armed forces of China, which also includes
8976-644: The party has leadership over the armed forces and the CMC exercises supreme military command; the party and state CMCs are practically a single body by membership. Since 1989, the CCP general secretary has also held been the CMC Chairman; this grants significant political power as the only member of the Politburo Standing Committee with direct responsibilities for the armed forces. The Ministry of National Defense has no command authority; it
9078-439: The railroad forces, the communications forces, and the strategic forces, as well as other separate forces (like engineering and construction, logistics and medical services), were established later on. In this early period, the People's Liberation Army overwhelmingly consisted of peasants. Its treatment of soldiers and officers was egalitarian and formal ranks were not adopted until 1955. As a result of its egalitarian organization,
9180-661: The remaining land. A solution to the two countries' border dispute was negotiated in 1950s. The Sino-Pakistan Agreement (also known as the Sino-Pakistan Frontier Agreement and Sino-Pak Boundary Agreement) is a 1963 document between the governments of Pakistan and China establishing the border between those countries. It resulted in Pakistan ceding 5,300 km (2,050 sq mi) to China and China ceding over 1,900 km (750 sq mi) to Pakistan. In 1991, China and USSR signed
9282-482: The revival of rank to be delayed until 1988. The following ranks and their respective insignia shown are those used by the People's Liberation Army Ground Force . The current system of officer ranks and insignia, a revision of the ranks and insignia established in 1955, began usage in 1988. The 1955 to 1965 marshal officer ranks of yuánshuài ( 5-star Marshal) and dà yuánshuài ( 6-star grand marshal) were not revived. The general officer ranks ( jiang ) were revised by
9384-601: The same time consolidating by recruiting KMT troops and paramilitary forces behind Japanese lines into their forces. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, the CCP continued to use the National Revolutionary Army unit structures until the decision was made in February 1947 to merge the Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army, renaming the new million-strong force the People's Liberation Army (PLA). The reorganization
9486-631: The successes and failures of the United States Armed Forces during the Kosovo War , the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan , the 2003 invasion of Iraq , and the Iraqi insurgency . All these lessons inspired China to transform the PLA from a military based on quantity to one based on quality. Chairman Jiang Zemin officially made a " revolution in military affairs " (RMA) part of the official national military strategy in 1993 to modernize
9588-418: The total—all of whom are CCP members. The PLA is not a traditional nation-state military. It is a part, and the armed wing, of the CCP and controlled by the party, not by the state. The PLA's primary mission is the defense of the party and its interests. The PLA is the guarantor of the party's survival and rule, and the party prioritizes maintaining control and the loyalty of the PLA. According to Chinese law,
9690-420: Was US$ 296 billion in 2023, accounting for 12 percent of the world's defence expenditures . It is also one of the fastest modernizing militaries in the world, and has been termed as a potential military superpower, with significant regional defence and rising global power projection capabilities. In addition to wartime arrangements, the PLA is also involved in the peacetime operations of other components of
9792-526: Was a barrier to modernization and professionalization, and eroded party control. The 2010s anti-corruption campaigns and military reforms under Xi Jinping from the early-2010s were in part executed to address these problems. Following the PLA's suppression of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre , ideological correctness was temporarily revived as the dominant theme in Chinese military affairs. Reform and modernization have today resumed their position as
9894-751: Was completed by late 1948. The PLA eventually won the Chinese Civil War, establishing the People's Republic of China in 1949. It then underwent a drastic reorganization, with the establishment of the Air Force leadership structure in November 1949, followed by the Navy leadership structure the following April. In 1950, the leadership structures of the artillery, armored troops, air defence troops, public security forces, and worker–soldier militias were also established. The chemical warfare defence forces,
9996-583: Was declared as invalid by the South China Sea Arbitration ruling. A 2013 survey of Chinese adults found that respondents who sourced their information about the dispute from traditional mass media (which are more subject to state regulation) were less supportive of the idea that China should adopt hardline policies in the South China Sea. The researchers who conducted the survey concluded that China's state-media coverage of
10098-539: Was established after defeating the nationalist government in the Chinese Civil War. The boundary then became one between two sovereign independent states. The border was re-surveyed and demarcated in April 1992. The People's Republic of China established diplomatic relations with Mongolia on October 16, 1949, and both nations signed a border treaty in 1962. With the Sino-Soviet split , Mongolia aligned itself with
10200-752: Was relatively brief and China defeated South Vietnam. China moved quickly to consolidate its position in the area and has maintained control of the Paracel Islands since. The 2012 Scarborough Shoal fishing dispute and resulting standoff between China and the Philippines prompted the Philippines to initiate the South China Sea Arbitration in 2013. China declined to participate in the arbitration and stated that it would not accept any arbitration result. As part of its grounds for nonparticipation and nonacceptance, China cited
10302-509: Was taken from the then Qing dynasty by unequal treaties . In 2011, as part of a boundary agreement, China officially relinquished its claim on 96% of the total disputed territory, while Tajikistan ceded around 4% - about 1,137 square km (439 square miles) – to China. However, this treaty is not recognized by the Republic of China (ROC) government based in Taipei, and they continue to claim
10404-619: Was the Paracels. In 1933, when France occupied six features in the Spratlys, China did not protest as it recognized the year before that its southernmost territory was limited to the Paracels. In the 1970s, the discovery of the potential for petroleum resources in the South China Sea prompted an increase in occupation activity by claimants. From 1971 to 1973, the Philippines began occupying five features and South Vietnam began occupying six. Concerned that its claims would be weakened by
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